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PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI. — No. 1 


_ INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 
AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 


BY 
CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY 


‘WITH NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY 
EARNEST A. HOOTON 


FOUR PLATES AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1924 





PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI. — No. 1 


INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 
AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 


BY 
CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY 


WITH NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY 
EARNEST A. HOOTON 


FOUR PLATES AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1924 


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COPYRIGHT, 1924 
BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIV 





NOTE 


Accounts of a number of explorations carried on by the 
late Professor Frederick W. Putnam, or under his direction, 
remained unpublished at the time of his death. Two of the 
most important of these, dealing with the archaeology of 
Ohio, have since been brought out as parts of Volume VIII of 
this series, and it is hoped that others will follow. 

The exploration of the small burial place at Winthrop, 
while merely an incident in Professor Putnam’s work, is 
thought worthy~f record owing to the early historic period to 
which the burials belong, and to the rarity of such dis- 
coveries in Massachusetts. 


CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Director 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 
April 18, 1924 





INDIAN BURIAL PLACE AT WINTHROP 
MASSACHUSETTS 


In April, 1888, workmen, excavating for the narrow gauge railroad 
at Winthrop, Massachusetts, just across the harbor from Boston, 
unearthed three or four Indian skeletons. The skull of one of these 
lay in contact with pieces of thin copper, evidently parts of a copper 
vessel which had been placed over the head. The greater part of the 
skull was deeply stained by the metal which had preserved portions 
of the hair and scalp, and what appear to be parts of the brain and 
its membranes, also fragments of matting and other wrappings. 
As soon as Mr. C. A. Hammond, superintendent of the road, heard 
of the discovery, he secured the skulls and such other bones as had 
not been destroyed, and presented them to the Peabody Museum. 
On August 21, Mr. Hammond wrote to Professor Putnam as fol- 
lows: ‘We are now obliged to make further excavations in the 
pound ! where relics have been found, and have already unearthed 
another skeleton, and more to follow, but I do not want to proceed 
further . . . until you can see the situation and give us some ad- 
vice.”’ 

Professor Putnam was unable to go to Winthrop at the time, and 
arrangements were made for Mr. Hammond to discontinue the 
work on the road at that point for a few weeks. On November 22, 
the work of excavating the burials was begun under Professor Put- 
nam’s personal direction, and was continued for three days. Five 
graves were carefully opened. As these were the only ones within 
the line of the roadway which needed immediate attention, and as 
the weather meanwhile had become too cold to work to advantage, 
further investigations were postponed. On March 30, 1890, excava- 
tions were continued by Professor Putnam, and graves 8, 9, and 10 
were opened. This burial place was located on the southern slope 
of a low sandy hill on the site now occupied by Centre Station of 
the Boston, Revere Beach, and Lynn Narrow Gauge Railroad. Its 


1 Built by act of the authorities of Boston dated February 23, 1634. 
1 


2 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


locality is shown on the accompanying sketch-map, plate 1, which 
indicates only the streets in the immediate vicinity of the station. 

The positions of the skeletons are illustrated in figure 1. They 
were found at an average depth of about two feet, and artifacts 
were found in all of the graves opened by Professor Putnam, with 
the exception of number 3. 

The pound in which the burials were discovered was built for the 
protection of cattle owned by the settlers of Boston. On the 23rd of 
February, 1634, the authorities voted that ‘‘there shall be a little 
house built and a sufficiently payled yard to lodge cattle in of 





Ficure 1 


Burial Place at Winthrop: sketch-plan showing position of graves. 


nights at Pullen Poynt Neck before the 14th day of ye next second 
month 2 

At the time of the discovery of the burials (1888), the place was 
traditionally known as ‘‘The Pound.” In 1902, Mr. Charles W. 
Hall wrote as follows regarding it: 


The house and palisaded yard thus erected were certainly the first built by 
the Massachusetts settlers within Winthrop territory. William Cheeseborough, 
Constable of Boston, and cattle guard at Pullen Point Neck, must have had 
his ‘‘corral’’ and house somewhere between the Court Park section and the 
Town Hall, as the natural water supply for the cattle was the swamp that 
formerly stood near the site of Winthrop Centre Station.? 


From the above we may definitely assign to the burial place a 
date some time previous to 1634; and judging from the artifacts un- 
earthed, it seems probable that the period is very near the begin- 


1 Charles W. Hall, History of Winthrop, 1902, p. 19. 2 Ibid. 


PEABODY MusEuM PAPERS Vou. XI, No. 1, Puate 1 


WINTHROP 
HIGHLANDS 


CENTRE STATION 
SITE . OF 
BURIAL PLACE 





Map of Winthrop, Massachusetts, showing location of Burial Place. Only the streets 
in the vicinity of Centre Station are indicated. 





AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 3 


ning of the seventeenth century. This locality was in the territory 
of the Massachuset Indians, and the burial place undoubtedly be- 
longs to that tribe. 

The rarity of Indian cemeteries of the proto-historic period in 
Massachusetts makes the interments here recorded of unusual in- 
terest. The majority of Indian skeletons which have been un- 
earthed in this Commonwealth belong to a somewhat later date, 
and are usually unaccompanied by artifacts. 

The first burials unearthed by the workmen are not located on 
the plan, as their exact positions were not recorded. As already 


—~= be —_ 
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SSeS SS s 





a 
Ful uf 


FIGURE 2 


Section of bulrush mat showing weave. Found in contact 
with copper bowl covering skull of the first 
skeleton unearthed. (1/1.) 


stated, the skull, which lay in contact with the copper vessel, and 
the adhering portions of the grave wrappings were sent to the Mu- 
seum with the other bones. No pipes, beads, or other ornaments 
were noticed, such articles being easily overlooked. 

This skull was that of an adult male, and, judging by the frag- 
ments of wrapping adhering to the copper, the burial was the result 
of careful preparation. The grave had apparently been lined or the 
body covered with birch-bark, and well-preserved pieces formed the 
outer portion of the adhering mass. The original pieces of bark had 
been sewed together with split roots. It is possible that this may 
have been a portion of a bark mat such as were used for portable 


4 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


lodge coverings by the Algonquian tribes inhabiting the birch-bark 
area; but the sewing does not correspond to that occurring in ex- 
amples of these bark mats in the Museum from the more eastern 
Algonquians. Within this outer covering of birch-bark was a layer 
of what appears to be the bark of the cedar, and within this, and in 
contact with the copper vessel covering the head of the skeleton, 
was a piece of woven bulrush mat which had been perfectly pre- 
served by contact with the metal. The type of weaving shown in 
this mat is illustrated in figure 2. The warp cords are in pairs and 
are undoubtedly of twisted bast; the woof is of selected rushes. 
According to both Roger Williams and John Josselyn, the interiors 
of the more permanent Indian habitations of New England were 
lined with ‘‘embroidered mats or with mats of rushes painted in 
several colors.”’ The mats of the Ojibwa of the Great Lakes area 





FIGURE 3 


Incisors of beaver, used as chisels, Grave 1. (1/ 1.) 


are doubtless very similar to those of the Indians of this region. 
The color of the groundwork of the Ojibwa mats is the natural 
brownish-yellow of the dried rushes, and pleasing patterns are pro- 
duced in considerable variety by weaving in rushes dyed in various 
colors. Both Williams and Josselyn undoubtedly refer to mats 
which were woven in colors, not embroidered or painted. This 
specimen is of special interest, as it is probably the only example 
extant from New England. Mats from Algonquian tribes in general 
are usually about 3 feet wide by 5 to 7 feet long, with cross-stripes, 
lozenge-shaped figures, or other designs, usually in red, yellow, and 
black. Although coarser, they resemble some of the well-known 
commercial floor-mattings from China and Japan. 

The metal object which lay in contact with the skull appears to 


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Z ALVTg ‘T ‘ON ‘TX “I0A suddvg Waasnayy AGodvag 


“ 





AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 5) 


have been a basin about 12 inches in diameter and 3 inches deep, 
made from sheet-copper. It had become corroded in places and was 
broken into numerous pieces. The largest fragment is about 7 by 
4 inches. Many of the smaller pieces were apparently overlooked 
by the workmen. The edge of the basin was not turned over or 
wired, but was roughly cut and made smooth, probably by grind- 
ing. This may possibly have been made by an Indian workman by 
cutting a disc of the proper size from a sheet of copper and beating 
it into concavo-convex form. Similar large drinking cups of this 
metal were seen by Brereton in possession of the Indians of south- 
ern Massachusetts in 1602. 


Grave 1. This was opened by Professor Putnam. It was 30 inches 
deep, and contained the skeleton of a man in a flexed position. Ly- 







==> 
SS 
_— en Fira ar a ia 


SSS 


al 





FIGURE 4 


Bone arrowpoints, Grave 1. (1/2.) 


ing parallel to the spinal column, in the position shown in plate 2, 
was a much corroded implement or bar of iron, 233 inches long, ¢ of 
an inch wide, and } of an inch thick, one end of which tapered to a 
chisel-like edge. 

Over this implement were five bone points and an incisor of a 
beaver such as were commonly hafted and used as chisels or knives 
(figure 3). On the opposite side of the body was another group of 
five bone points and a second beaver tooth. Both groups of points 
are illustrated in figure 4. The position of the first group is shown 
in the photograph. It seems probable that these points were all 
that remained of two groups of arrows. It will be noticed that in the 
first group the points lay nearly parallel with each other, with the 


6 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


tips in one direction, as would be the case had they been attached to 
shafts. The relative positions of the individual points in the second 
group are not recorded. It is interesting to note in this connection 
that the Virginia Indians used a beaver tooth, properly hafted, for 
notching the feathered end of their arrow shafts.1 

Many varieties of arrowpoints were used by the New England 
Indians, including flint, bone, the hollowed tips of deer antler, eagle 
claws, tails of the horseshoe-crab, and triangular points of sheet- 
brass. At the time of the arrival of the colonists, sheet-brass points 





Figure 5 


One of the lumbar vertebrae of skeleton from 
Grave 1, showing brass arrowpoint which had 
been shot through the abdomen of 
the Indian. (2/3.) 


had almost wholly replaced those of flint. The arrows were care- 
fully made. Elder twigs were a favorite wood for the shaft, into one 
end of which was inserted a foreshaft of heavier wood, to which the 
point was attached. 

Higgeson, writing in 1629 of the arrows of this region, says that 
some were headed with bone, some with brass.? These two varieties 
of arrowpoints were found in the grave we are describing. The one 
of brass had caused the death of this Indian. It was found half 
buried in the forward portion of one of the lumbar vertebre, and is 


1 Captain John Smith, Voyages and Discoveries, Arber Edition, vol. 1, pp. 364, 365. 
2 New England’s Plantations, Massachusetts Historical Collections, 1st Series, vol. 1, p. 123. 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS fi 


shown in position in figure 5. The arrow had been shot into the 
abdomen as the Indian was facing his opponent. 

The only other artifacts recovered were a bead-like object of 
sheet-copper, one end somewhat larger than the other, and a bone 
point or awl, which was apparently in the earth used for filling the 
grave, 

Grave 2. This was dug to the depth of 25 feet and had been lined 
with matting. It contained the flexed skeleton of a woman. At its 
left side lay an unworked shell of Fulgur canaliculata, a species not 






Y 4 
7 





Lie 


2S 


? 
2 ose 
‘ we 
~ A Se 
WASSSS Es 
ps SS SSS 8 ~ 





FIGuRE 6 
Shell of Fulgur canaliculata probably used as a drinking cup, Grave 2. (2/3.) 


uncommon on the Massachusetts coast. This was probably used as 
a drinking cup or dipper (figure 6). About a foot from the skull 
were the three pottery vessels which are illustrated in figures 7 and 
8. Near the left shoulder were also about twenty beads, approxi- 
mately 4 inches in length and } inch in diameter, examples of which 
are illustrated in figure 9, and also what appears to be a piece of a 
skin garment in which the body was wrapped. Each bead was made 
of a section of a twig, probably elder, with the pith removed, and 
neatly covered with thin sheet-copper, the salts of which had pre- 
served the two-ply twisted cord with which the beads had been 


8 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


fastened together. These beads had not been strung end to end 
as a necklace, but seem to have been fastened side by side into a 
sort of band, similar to that taken from the Indian skeleton found 
near Fall River in 1831, and later made famous by Longfellow as 
the skeleton in armor. Beads similar to these, made of sheet-copper 
or brass, were quite common among the New England Indians at a 
very early date, and many have been taken from graves. Sheets of 








FIGURE 7 
Pottery vessel, Grave 2. (1/2.) 


copper and brass were undoubtedly sold to the Indians of this re- 
gion by European fishermen and explorers many years before the 
arrival of the colonists. As early as 1524, Verrazano saw many 
plates of wrought copper in possession of the Indians of southern 
New England. These were undoubtedly of European origin. Brere- 
ton in 1602 saw among the Indians of Massachusetts: 


. a great store of Copper, some very red, and some of a paler colour 
[brass]; none of them but have Chaines, Eare-rings, or Collars of this metall; 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 9 


they head some of their Arrows herewith much like our broad Arrow heads, 
very workmanly made. Their Chaines are many hollow pieces semented to- 
gether, each piece of the bignesse of one of our reeds, a finger in length, ten or 
twelve of them together on a string, which they weare about their neckes: their 
Collars they weare about their bodies like Bandolieres a handfull broad, all hol- 
low pieces, like the other, but somewhat shorter, foure hundred pieces in a Col- 
lar, very fine and evenly set together. Besides these they have large drinking 
cups made like Sculls [bowls], and other thinne plates of Copper, made much 
like our Boare-spear blades, all of which they so little esteeme as they offered 





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Wik, geceee 
Ce 


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i 
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Peckecece cece 

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Figure 8 
Pottery vessels, Grave 2. (1/2.) 


their fairest Collars and Chaines for a Knife, or such like trifle, but we seemed 
little to regard it. 


The twisted cord on which the copper beads found with this 
skeleton were strung is larger and coarser than is commonly used 
for this purpose, and the material from which it is made has the ap- 
pearance of sinew. 

The three pottery vessels belong to the later Algonquian group. 
The clay from which they are made is of good quality and is tem- 
pered with crushed burnt shell. Cooking vessels having nearly 
globular bodies like these were usually suspended over the fire. 
The older pots with pointed bottoms belonging to the archaic 
group of primitive New England pottery, sherds of which are 
common in the older shell-heaps, were supported by hearth-stones 
or were set a few inches into the ground, instead of being sus- 
pended. The decoration upon these three vessels is characteristic 


1 Brereton, Account of Gosnold’s Voyage, Mass. Hist. Coll., 3d Series, vol. vi, p. 91. 


10 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


of the pottery of this region, and consists of incised lines or de- 
pressed markings, probably made with pointed or notched sticks 
or similar tools. On the body of the largest vessel, and also on the 
one illustrated in figure 10, are faint impressions of cord-wrapped 
paddles such as were used in pottery making over an extensive 
area east of the Mississippi River. 

The round-bottomed pottery of the later New England Algon- 
quians has many characteristics of Iroquoian ware. The Iroquois 
were excellent potters, and while the clay vessels of the two peoples 
are as a rule easily distinguished, the influence of the work of these 





FIGURE 9 


Tubular beads of elder wood covered with thin sheet-copper, Grave 2. (1/1.) 


New York tribes was marked on the fictile art of the natives of the 
southern portion of New England. 

The so-called “‘Red Paint”’ people, the oldest New England In- 
dians of whom we have knowledge, made no pottery. The earliest 
New England potters were undoubtedly the Algonquian tribes 
whose refuse is found on many of the older village sites inland, and 
especially in the ancient kitchen-middens or shell-heaps of our tide- 
water region. The broken pottery from these sources shows that 
the bottoms of the pots were more or less pointed. These vessels 
could not stand upright without being supported by a tripod of 
stones, or by being set with the pointed bottom an inch or two in the 
earth. This older type of pottery extended southward along our 
coast to Virginia, where it was used as late as the latter part of the 
sixteenth century. Hariot describes its use as follows: 


After they set them upon a heape of earth to stay them from fallinge, they 
putt wood under which being kyndled one of them taketh great care that the 
fyre burn equallye rounde abowt. 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 11 


The more or less globular bodies of the pots from these graves, 
however, taken in connection with their restricted necks, seem to 
indicate that they were intended principally for suspension by 
means of a band encircling the vessel below the rim, to which cords 
or thongs were fastened. 

The rounded bottoms suspended a few inches from the live coals 
would expose a large surface to the direct heat, without obstructing 
the draft or deadening the fire. In ‘‘Mourt’s Relation” we have a 
description of an Indian wigwam at Cape Cod in 1620. In the 
midst of this mat-covered house was the fireplace, where were found 
“four little trunches [crotched sticks] knockt into the ground and 
small sticks laid over on which they hang their pots and what 
they had to seeth.”’ } 

The few other references to the earthenware of the Indians of 
eastern Massachusetts are as follows. Gookin in 1674 writes: 


The pots they seeth their food in, which were heretofore and yet are in use 
among some of them are made of clay or earth, almost in the form of an egg 
with the top taken off. But now they generally get kettles of brass, copper or 
iron. These they found most lasting than those of clay, which were subject to 
be broken, and the clay or earth they were made of was very scarce and dear.» 


Morton tells us: 


They have earthen potts of divers sizes, from quart to a gallon, 2 or 3, to 
boyl their vitels in, very strong though they be thin like our iron pots.’ 


Champlain found pottery in use along the Massachusetts coast, and 
says that ‘‘ when the natives eat Indian corn they boil it in earthern 
pots which they make in a different way from ours.” 4 

Of the many New England potsherds examined by the writer, 
only one or two show indications that the vessel of which they 
formed a part may have been made by the coiling process. 

It seems doubtful if this method, so common in the West, was 
used to any great extent by the northeastern tribes. The following, 
as quoted by Laverdiére, from Sagard’s ‘‘ History of Canada,” writ- 
ten in 1636, doubtless refers to Iroquoian potters; the description 
may apply as well to the Algonquian potters of New England: 


1 Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (London, 1622), Cheever’s Reprint, p. 39. 
2 Gookin, Mass. Hist. Coll., 1st Series, vol. 1, p. 151. 

3 Thomas Morton, New English Canaan (1637), Prince Scciety Reprint, p. 159. 
4 Champlain’s Voyages, Prince Society Reprint, vol. 1, p. 86. 


12 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


They are skilful in making good earthen pots which they harden very well on 
the hearth, and which are so strong that they do not, like our own, break over 
the fire when having no water in them. But they cannot sustain dampness nor 
cold water so long as our own, since they become brittle and break at the least 
shock given them; otherwise they last very well. The savages make them by 
taking some earth of the right kind, which they clean and knead well in their 
hands, mixing with it, on what principle I know not, a small quantity of grease. 
Then making the mass into the shape of a ball, they make an indentation in the 
middle of it with the fist, which they make continually larger by striking re- 


S 


> RS ‘ ass . 
ASS RES a pmesS 
Fase SSS 
oe PSG SST 
5 Resa {Ses 
TRO 





Figure 10 
Pottery vessel, Grave 4. (1/2.) 


peatedly on the outside with a little wooden paddle as much as is necessary to 
complete it. These vessels are of different sizes, without feet or handles, com- 
pletely round like a ball, excepting the mouth, which projects a little.! 


Grave 8. Skeleton of a child about one year old, at a depth of 2 
feet. No artifacts were found with it. 

Grave 4. A shallow grave containing the skeletons of a man, a 
woman, and two children, in the pesitions shown in plate 3. Frag- 
ments of the pottery vessel, illustrated in figure 10, lay near the 


1 Champlain’s Voyages, Prince Society Reprint, vol. 11, p. 86, note. 


‘JassoA Ar0}30d usyorg B pus ‘UdIpPpIyO OMY puv ‘UBUIOM ‘UBUT B JO SUOJOTOYS SuUIMOYS ‘fF oABIHH :doIyIUIM 3B s0¥[J [VlINng 





@ ALVTg ‘T ‘ON ‘TX “I0A suddvVq Waasay Adoavag 





AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 13 


head of the woman. Beneath her head were 80 blue and white tu- 
bular glass beads, 3 to 3 of an inch long and of various diameters, 
also a few copper beads of about the same size. There were also 
found in this grave 148 white beads made from the columella of one 
of the larger univalves, probably Fulgur carica or Fulgur canalicu- 
lata, and a few small discoidal beads of mussel shell (plate 4). The 
white beads are of ancient type and were made before the common 
white and purple wampum became the vogue among the Indians of 
New England and the Middle States. This later commercial 
wampum, made principally from the shell of the quahog, was in- 
troduced into New England by the Dutch about 1628. 

Grave 5. A much decayed skeleton of a man lay 2 feet below 
the surface. The earth at this point was less sandy than the other 





FiGurReE 11 


Spoon made of antler, Grave 9. (1/2.) 


sections of the cemetery, and the dampness caused a more rapid 
disintegration of the bones. The only artifacts found were a few 
tubular white shell beads and five tubular glass beads which lay 
beneath the jaw. 

Graves 6 and 7. Unearthed by workmen. Exact locality unre- 
corded. No artifacts found with skeletons. 

Grave 8. Skeleton of man, 2 feet below the surface, in the usual 
flexed position, and facing southeast. The only implement re- 
covered was a bone awl lying about 4 inches back from the verte- 
bral column. 

Grave 9. This contained the skeleton of a child, two to three 
years old, at a depth of 14 inches, and judging by the objects found, 
it must have been a girl. Near the head were fragments of a pot- 
tery vessel of about the size and shape of the one illustrated in 
figure 7; also the antler spoon shown in figure 11. Nearby lay the 


14 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


stone pestle (figure 12) with its upper portion carved to represent 
the head of an animal, also the small water-worn stone (figure 13) 
which resembles the ordinary polish- 
ing or sharpening stone although it 
shows no sign of use. As one end of the 
stone somewhat resembles an animal 
head, it seems not unlikely that this 
may have been a toy. Near the knees 
of the skeleton was found the small pottery 
vessel illustrated in figure 14. This also was 
probably a toy. The only other artifact 
recovered was a bone point, which may have 
been thrown into the grave with the earth 
when covering the body. 

The pestle is of considerable interest as it 
represents a type not uncommon among the 
Algonquian tribes of New England and the 
eastern sections of the Middle States, but 
rare in the adjacent regions. Although no 
object of European provenience was found 
in this grave, the burial undoubtedly belongs 
to the same period as the others in this 
cemetery, which would indicate that pestles 
of this general form, with or without the 
terminating animal head, were used up to 
about the beginning of the seventeenth 
century. Judging from the collections from 
Massachusetts in the Peabody Museum, 
about five per cent of the more carefully 
wrought stone pestles terminate at one end 
in a knob or a more or less carefully sculp- 
tured head of an animal. The best example 
of this type known to the writer was found 
in the Kennebec Valley, and has a finely 
wrought human head at the upper extremity. 
These pestles are of various lengths, up to 
about 28 inches, and are commonly about 2 
to 24 inches in diameter. They are usually made of a variety of 
metamorphosed slate, and are generally gray or greenish in color. 





Figure 12 
Stone pestle, Grave 9. 
(1/2.) 


Prasopy MusEuM Papers Vou. XI, No. 1, PLatse 4 





Burial Place at Winthrop: Blue and white tubular glass beads (at left); tubular 
beads of shell, and small discoidal beads of mussel shell, all from Grave 4. (1/1.) 





AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 15 


They were probably used with wooden mortars made by burning a 
hole in the end or the side of a section of a tree trunk. There is an 
old Indian mortar and pestle from Nantucket in the Peabody Mu- 
seum. The mortar is made from a section of an oak tree trunk. It 
is about 20 inches high, 9 inches in diameter, and has a cavity about 
10 inches deep. This is probably similar to the larger mortars used 
in prehistoric times in New England. With such mortars the longer 





FIGurE 13 


Water-worn stone remotely resembling a small animal, Grave 9. (1/2.) 


stone pestles were probably used. It is also probable that long 
wooden pestles similar to those still common among the Algon- 
quians of the Great Lakes region were used in these mortars. The 
pestle that accompanies the old mortar above mentioned is about 
30 inches long, and is of wood with the excep- 
tion of the lower portion, which consists of a 
short piece of an ancient stone pestle fitted to 
the wooden handle and bound with an iron 
band. The smaller stone pestles were probably 
used in wooden mortars of relative size, and 
were doubtless for preparing maize foods, 
“medicine,” and other substances. 
Schoolcraft figures, on plate 21 of the fourth 





Fiaure 14 
volume of his work, a woman grinding corn. Toy pottery vessel, 


Grave 9. (1/2.) 
There is an ancient stone pestle, with a head Lay d 


at its upper end, suspended by a cord from the limb of a tree 
which serves as a spring-pole. A very broad and shallow mortar of 
stone is shown below. In connection with this picture are two views 
of the stone pestle drawn to a much larger scale. On page 175, un- 
der the caption ‘‘ Relics from New Hampshire,” is the following 
reference to this illustration: 


The mode of pounding maize by suspending a stone pestle from the limb of 
a tree as practised by the ancient Pennacooks of the Merrimack Valley in New 
Hampshire is represented in plate 21. The pestle is commonly ornamented by 


16 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


the head of a man or quadruped, neatly carved from greywacke, or compact 
sandstone, the mortar being also of the same material. 


This reference has been widely quoted. It seems apparent, how- 
ever, that Schoolcraft was describing a stone pestle found in the 
habitat of the Pennacook Indians in the Merrimack Valley which 
he figures separately, and that his accompanying drawing showing 
a woman using this same pestle is wholly ideal. Stone mortars of 
Indian origin, such as is shown in this drawing, if they occur at all in 
New England, are extremely rare. 

Referring previously to the use of the spring-pole in connection 
with the mortar and pestle, Schoolcraft says (vol. 111, page 467): 


After the introduction of the iron axe consequent on the discovery, stumps 
of trees were excavated to serve the purpose of a mortar, a practice which com- 





Figure 15 


Spoons: the larger is made of sheet-brass, the smaller of sheet-copper, 
Grave 10. (1/2.) 


mended itself to the early back settlers who improved on the idea by attaching 
the wooden pestle to a spring-pole loaded in such a manner as to lift the pestle 
from the block with but little effort. 


It seems doubtful, therefore, if the spring-pole was used by the 
New England Indians in ancient times. 

Grave 10. Skeleton of a child two to three years of age, probably 
a boy. Near the foot of the grave were fragments of a pottery ves- 
sel. Near the extremity of the forearm lay a deposit consisting of 
two spoons, the larger made of sheet-brass and the smaller of sheet- 
copper (figure 15); 5 pendants and a disc having two perforations, 
all of sheet-brass (figure 16) ; a terra-cotta pipe (figure 18) ; the rem- 
nants of a bag of coiled netting which had evidently contained the 
pipe; and what may have been the remains of a second bag, prob- 
ably of dressed skin, which perhaps had held the metal spoons. 
With these objects were several seeds, resembling those of a variety 
of the Cornus, having the ends ground down to the cavity, thus 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS li? 


forming a perforation for the purpose of stringing for use as beads. 
With the skeleton were also several glass beads, both blue and 
white, of the same kind as those shown in plate 4; and the iron 
adze blade illustrated in figure 17. 

Roger Williams says that ‘“‘generally all the [Indian] men 
throughout the country have a tobacco bag with a pipe in it hang- 
ing at their back.”’ It was doubtless such a bag which was placed in 
this grave. It was of coiled netting (figure 19), a style of fabric used 
principally for bags by various tribes of both North and South 
America, and also found among the natives of Africa and the Pacific 
Islands. The foundation for the mouth of these bags was a cord 
over which the first coil of the bag was looped, as indicated in the 
drawing. This looped coiling was continued spirally downward, the 





Figure 16 
Pendants and disc of sheet-brass, Grave 10. (1/2.) 


lower portions of the bag being drawn in gradually until the center 
of the bottom was reached. The texture is shown more open in the 
illustration than in the original, for the purpose of making the tech- 
nic clearer. This is the first record of the occurrence of this fabric 
among the natives of New England. 

So little remains of what appears to be a second bag that it is im- 
possible to tell the material of which it was made. It was probably 
of dressed skin, however, and was apparently ornamented with 
the brass pendants and disc (figure 16); beads made from seeds; 
and a double fringe of hair, a section of one layer of which is 
shown in figure 20. 

The tobacco pipe is of a type evidently fairly common at the be- 
ginning of the seventeenth century, and probably also at a much 
earlier date. It is of terra-cotta, and of a form occurring among the 
eastern Algonquians from Virginia northward, to and including the 
southeastern portion of New England. This specimen has its stem 


18 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


covered with a piece of sheet-brass, very neatly joined. The ma- 
jority of these pipes, however, are without this metal reinforce- 
ment. Gosnold in 1602 saw among the Indians in the vicinity of 
Buzzards Bay, southern Massachusetts, pipes ‘‘steeled with cop- 
per.”’ Brereton’s account is more explicit. He says: 


the necks of their pipes are made of clay, hard dried . . . the other part is a 
piece of hollow copper very finely closed and cemented together.! 


This is a very good description of the pipe from this burial. 
There are two other terra-cotta pipes in the Museum from Mas- 
sachuset Indian graves in the vicinity of Boston, having bowls also 
bound with sheet-brass. It is probable that the stems of both 
were originally covered with the same material, for one still retains 
a narrow band of brass just below the 
bowl, and the lower portion of the 
other had evidently been cut down 
to fit a tapering metal stem. 

Figure 17 During this period, stone tobacco 

ane poet pipes with figures of men or beasts 

in relief upon them were also in use 

by our Indians. This is shown by the accounts of contemporary 

writers, and by archeological investigations. The platform pipe, 

however, frequently found in this region seems to belong to an 
earlier period. 

The two spoons found near the bag containing the pipe were 
neatly made, the larger of sheet-brass and the smaller of sheet-cop- 
per. The concavo-convex form of the bowls may have been pro- 
duced by hammering that portion of the unfinished spoon into a 
corresponding depression in a block of wood with a round-faced 
hammer of some kind, a method followed by our sheet-metal work- 
ers in making various objects, up to quite recent times. The edges 
of the spoons are ground smooth. If they were originally cut with 
heavy shears, or if they were finished with a file, all traces seem to 
have been removed by grinding. The edges of the brass pendants 
appear to have been finished in the same manner, but the perfora- 
tions in the pendants were doubtless produced with an iron punch, 
as the bur upon the under side is very marked. The copper basin 
found with the first burial described was doubtless shaped by the 





1 Brereton, op. cit. p. 88. 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 19 


same process as were the bowls of the spoons. The metal handles 
of the spoons are very short, and it seems reasonable to suppose 
that they were originally attached to longer handles of wood. On 
the whole, it seems probable that the basin and spoons were made 
by Whites who possessed only crude tools, although it is possible 
that they were worked out of sheet metal by the Indians. 

The occasional finding of tobacco pipes in graves of young chil- 
dren is an interesting indication of the affectionate forethought of 
the parents for the future comfort and welfare of the departed boy. 
It seems to indicate a belief in the continued growth and maturity 





Figure 18 


Terra-cotta tobacco pipe with stem covered with sheet-brass and 
wound with sinew, Grave 10. (2/3.) 
of the spirit, for it is hardly probable that these very young chil- 
dren were users of tobacco at the time of their death. 

Throughout the century following the discovery of Newfound- 
land by Cabot in 1497, ships from various nations of Europe visited 
the northeastern coast of America, and had more or less communi- 
cation with the natives. Verrazano, the Florentine explorer, 
reached the eastern coast of America in 1524, and turning north- 
ward explored the bays and inlets to about the latitude of eastern 
Maine. He gives an accurate account of the Indians of southern 
New England, and describes their habitations, dress, canoes, agri- 
culture, etc. He writes as follows of the copper found among them: 

We saw many plates of wrought copper which they esteem more than gold, 
which for the color, they make no account of, for that among all other is ac- 
counted the basest. They make most account of azure and red. The things 


they esteemed most of all those which we gave them were bells, crystals of 
azure color, and other toys to hang at their ears and about their necks.! 


This copper must have been obtained from previous explorers of 
whom we have no account; for although an occasional implement 


1 Relation of John Verrazano, Hakluyt’s Divers Voyages, Hakluyt Society Reprint, p. 65. 


20 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


and a few small beads have been found, wrought from native cop- 
per, nothing in the way of metal plates or large beads has been re- 
covered in New England which was not made of European copper 
or brass. It has been suggested that much of the sheet metal was 
obtained from wrecked ships. It seems much more probable that it 
was acquired in trade with the early fishermen and explorers, many 
of whom undoubtedly skirted our New England shores in the six- 
teenth century. In 1535, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence. It ap- 





v N ) Nh wal i s } 14 I" 1 Wy a 

yak AW nil | i 

i i | 

WAY APN 

IW | ! 

il | 

| 

| | ] i 

| aN Ins 

FicurEe 19 Figure 20 
Section of bag of coiled netting, the lower Section of layer of fringe, 
enlarged drawing showes the technic more probably a part of bag, 
clearly, Grave 10. (1/1.) Grave 10. (1/1.) 


pears that the English trade “out of England to Newfound land 
was common and frequented”’ as early as 1548.! 

In 1578, Anthonie Parkhurst wrote a letter to Richard Hakluyt, 
a portion of which is as follows: 


Now to answer some part of your letter touching the sundry navies that 
come to Newfoundland or Terra nova, for fish: you shal understand that some 
fish not neere the other by 200. leagues, and therefore the certaintie is not 
knowen; and some yeres come many more than other some, as I see the like 
among us: who since my first travell being but 4. yeeres, are increased from 30. 
sayle to 50. which commeth to passe chiefly by the imagination of the Westerne 
men, who thinke their neighbours have had greater gaines then in very deed 
they have, for that they see me to take such paines yeerely to go in proper per- 
son: they also suppose that I find some secret commoditie by reason that I doe 
search the harbors, creekes and havens, and also the land much more than ever 
any Englishman hath done. Surely I am glad that it so increaseth, whereof 
soever it springeth. But to let this passe, you shall understand that I am in- 
formed that they are above 100. saile of Spaniards that come to take Cod be- 
sides 20. or 30. more that come from Biskaie to kill Whale for Traine. These be 
better appoynted for shipping and furniture of munition, then any nation say- 


1 Hakluyt’s Voyages (Glasgow Edition, 1904), vol. vit, p. 9. 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 21 


ing the Englishmen, who commonly are lords of the harbors where they fish, 
and do use all strangers helpe in fishing if need require, according to an old cus- 
tome of the countrey, which they do willingly, so that you take nothing from 
them more then a boat or twaine of salt, in respect of your protection of them 
against rovers or other violent intruders, who do often put them from good har- 
bor, &c. As touching their tunnage, I thinke it may be neere five or sixe thou- 
sand tunne. But of Portugals there are not lightly above 50. saile, whose tun- 
nage may amount to three thousand tuns, and not upwarde. Of the French 
nation and Britons, are about one hundred and fiftie sailes, the most of their 
shipping is very small, not past fortie tunnes, among which some are great and 
reasonably well appointed, better then the Portugals, and not so well as the 
Spaniards, and the burden of them may be some 7000. tunne. Their shipping is 
from all parts of France and Britaine, and the Spaniards from most parts of 
Spaine, the Portugals from Aviero and Viana, and from 2. or 3. ports more. 
The trade that our nation hath to Island maketh, that the English are not there 
in such numbers as other nations.! 


From the above we learn that at this date there were evidently 
nearly 400 European vessels engaged in taking fish or whales, and 
probably a portion of them incidentally trading for furs, in an area 
600 miles in diameter in the vicinity of Newfoundland and Cape 
Breton. The New England coast was doubtless within this 600 
mile area, and there seems to be no reasonable doubt that it was 
visited by many of these ships and that there was more or less inter- 
course between these vessels and the natives. This seems to be the 
most reasonable explanation of the origin of the quantities of cop- 
per and brass objects recorded by early writers as in possession of 
the Indians of this region, and it doubtless explains their presence in 
early proto-historic graves of the tidewater region. It may also ex- 
plain the presence of certain unusual forms of porcelain and glass 
beads. 

In September, 1907, the attention of the writer was called to the 
finding of an Indian cemetery on the slope of a hill in Ipswich, 
Massachusetts, where the land was being graded. One or two graves 
were uncovered, and with the burials were found a terra-cotta pipe 
similar to the one illustrated in figure 18, but without the brass 
binding on the stem; a bracelet of small beads of sheet-copper 
strung alternately with blue glass beads; a necklace of small white 
porcelain beads of oval form; and the bronze brazier shown in figure 
21. Only a few fragments of bone were recovered. 

Obtaining permission, in behalf of the Museum, of the owner of 


1 Hakluyt’s Voyages (Glasgow Edition, 1904), vol. vim, pp. 9-11. 


22 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


the estate, Mr. F. B. Harrington, investigations were carried on at 
the burial place for several days. A few additional graves were 
opened, but no artifacts were found. In each of these graves the 
skeletons had disintegrated, leaving nothing but a whitish paste in 
the damp soil in place of the bones. This, upon drying, turned to 
powder. Not a tooth was recovered. The bodies had been interred 
in a soil composed largely of clay, which allowed the water to 





FIGURE 21 
Bronze brazier from an Indian grave at Indian Hill, Ipswich, Massachusetts. (1/3.) 


percolate but slowly; consequently the disintegration of the bones 
was probably more rapid than it would have been had they been 
buried in sand or gravel. 

Not being able to determine the provenience of the brazier from 
collections in our colonial museums, inquiries were made at the 
British Museum, at the Museum at Hull, England, and at the 
Museo de Anthropologia, Madrid. No reply has come from 
Madrid. From the first institution, the following was received: 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 23 


We have two or three bronze (not brass) braziers with a general similarity to 
the one of which you enclose a photograph. One has projections rising from 
the rim in a similar manner, presumably to support a vessel placed above, but 
they have no curves and are not so “spiky.’’ We have no precise data to help 
us in dating, but regard our specimens as late 15th or early 16th Century. 


From the Hull Museum we received the following: 


In reply to your letter of the 5th instant, the object shown on the photograph 
seems to bea brazier, is probably late 16th Century in date, and appears to be of 
Spanish origin. 


If the last identification is correct, the specimen must have been 
obtained from a Spanish or Portuguese ship which communicated 
with the Massachuset Indians during the latter half of the six- 
teenth century. 

No exhaustive study has been made of the various types of glass 
and porcelain beads which have been recovered from Indian graves 
of eastern New England. When this is done it may throw addi- 
tional light on the intercourse of the natives with the sixteenth 
century fishermen and traders. 

Previous to the arrival of the colonists, the most valued articles 
obtained from the Whites were probably glass beads, and sheet-cop- 
per and brass. There seems to be no evidence that European cloth 
was sold to the Indians during this period. After the colonists be- 
came established, many well-made brass and copper kettles of vari- 
ous sizes and forms were obtained by barter, in addition to sheets of 
these metals, which were still in demand. The Indians also were 
able to procure European cloth, cast brass spoons, glassware, crock- 
ery, etc., and an occasional object of pewter, all of which have been 
found in graves dating about 1625 to 1670. 

During the latter part of the seventeenth century, however, a 
considerable change took place in the burial customs of this section, 
especially among the so-called Christianized Indians, and most of 
such graves which have been opened contain no artifacts and the 
skeletons are usually in a horizontal position. 

The long cultivation of the fields of this Commonwealth, the 
grading of lands, and the many excavations preliminary to building 
houses and roads, have brought to light relatively few Indian 
graves as compared with many sections of this country. These 
graves have usually been found singly or in small groups, and many 


24 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


were without artifacts. Their discovery has usually been under 
conditions which did not allow careful investigation by experienced 
excavators, therefore it is hoped that the foregoing account will 
prove of special value to those interested in the archzology of our 
northern Atlantic seaboard. 





Knife with antler handle, and blade probably 

made from a piece of brass kettle. Found with 

an Indian skeleton on Hermon Street, Winthrop, 

in 1886. The handle is of a type originally used 
for flint blades. (1/2.) 


NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS 


» By EARNEST A. HOOTON 


These remains from the Winthrop cemetery consist of incom- 
plete skeletons of seven adult males, four adult or sub-adult fe- 
males, and five infants. Two of the skeletons of males are well 
preserved, as is also the skeleton of one female. But none of them 
is complete. Several skeletons are represented only by calvariae or 
skull fragments. 

In connection with the cranial measurements and indices, the 
most important morphological features of the various crania are 
described. Following this, a brief consideration of the salient char- 
acters of the long bones accompanies the table recording their 
measurements and indices. 

60380, Grave 1. Thisis the skeleton of a young adult male. The 
brain case is of good size and very dolichocephalic (71.4). Itis also 
hypsicephalic (75.0) and akrocephalic (105.1). The frontal region 
is of medium breadth, but low and retreating; the sagittal region 
has a very pronounced median elevation; the temporal regions are 
flat, with moderate supramastoid crests, and the occipital region 
is moderately convex, and has a slight torus. 

The serration of the sutures is simple, and obliteration has begun 
externally only in the obelion region of the sagittal suture. There 
are a few small Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture, and one in 
each of the squamous sutures. There is also a very small bone in 
the right side of the coronal. The pterions are of the usual medium 
H-form, and there are no parietal foramina. One small right re- 
tromastoid foramen, and one small and one medium left foramen 
were observed. The mastoids are of medium size. 

The brow-ridges are large and divided into median and lateral 
portions. There is a moderate depression at nasion. The nasal 
bridge is narrow, of medium height, and concavo-convex in profile. 
The moderately broad nasal aperture shows lower borders of fair 
development and a large nasal spine. The orbits are low and 
broad, with a medium inclination of their horizontal axes. There 

25 


26 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


are no infraorbital sutures, and the suborbital fossae are shallow. 
Malars and zygomata are very large. Only a slight alveolar prog- 
nathism is apparent. 

The dentition is complete, but seven of the molars have been 
lost in life. The crowns of the teeth are much worn, and the quality 
is a little below the average for Indians. The palate is elliptical in 
shape and has a medium torus. The glenoid fossae are deep, with 
well-developed postglenoid processes. The styloids are very large. 
The middle lacerate foramina are of medium size, and the depres- 
sion of the petrous parts of the temporal bone is about average, as 
in typical Europeans. A complete pterygo-spinous foramen occurs 
on the right side, and indications of one are found on the left side. 
There are no dehiscences in the floor of the auditory meatus. The 
muscular impressions on the skull are well marked. 

The mandible is large, with a well-developed chin eminence, 
stout ascending rami, and everted gonial angles. The mylo-hyoid 
ridge and genial tubercles are well developed. 

This is a typical Eastern Indian dolichocephal. The facial index 
is mesoprosopic, and the gnathic index shows no prognathism. The 
orbits are chamaeconch, the nose is leptorrhine, the palatal index 
is brachyuranic, and the capacity (1480 cc.) is above average for 
Indians. 

60388, Grave 8. This is the skeleton of a middle-aged adult 
male. The frontal region is low and retreating, but broad. The 
sagittal region has a slight elevation and the breadth is narrow. A 
slight postcoronoid depression is noticeable. The temporal region 
is flat, with a small supramastoid ridge. The occipital region is of 
medium convexity, with traces of a torus. The serration of the 
sutures 1s simple. Obliteration is far advanced in the sagittal 
suture, the external thirds of the coronal suture are closed, and 
obliteration is beginning in the lambdoid. There is one medium 
Wormian bone in the lambdoid suture. The pterions are of a 
medium H-form. There is one small parietal foramen on the right 
side and one medium on the left. On the left side there are one 
medium and two small retromastoid foramina, and on the right side 
one medium and three small. The mastoids are large. The brow- 
ridges are prominent and divided into medium and lateral por- 
tions. There isa small depression at nasion, and the nasal bridge is 
of medium height and breadth. In profile it is concavo-convex. 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 27 


The nasal aperture is broad, with a moderate development of the 
lower borders and the nasal spine. The orbits are low and oblong 
in shape, with the horizontal axes slightly inclined. There are no 
infraorbital sutures, and the suborbital fossae are shallow. The 
malars and zygomata are large, but alveolar prognathism is slight. 

The dentition is complete, and the teeth are moderately worn and 
of fair quality. Several abscesses, caries, and traces of pyorrhoea 
are evident. The number of cusps of the molar teeth cannot be 
counted, nor is it possible to ascertain the presence or absence of 
shovel incisors. The palate is parabolic in shape, with a moderate 
torus. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and show a medium 
postglenoid process. The styloids are small. The middle lacerate 
foramina are large, and the depression of the petrous portions of 
the temporal bones is about the average for Europeans. The pos- 
terior lacerate and postcondyloid foramina are ordinary. The 
foramen magnum is hexagonal. Partially formed pterygo-spinous 
foramina are present. 

The mandible is large, with a well-developed mental process. 
The mylo-hyoid ridge is submedium in development, but the genial 
tubercles are average. Slight traces of a mandibular torus may be 
noticed. 

60379, Unearthed by workmen. The calvaria is that of a middle- 
aged male. The frontal breadth is very narrow, and the maximum 
breadth occurs at the level of the parietal tuberosities. The skull 
is high, short, and of rather small breadth. It is subbrachycephalic 
(78.09), and appears to be the result of the admixture of a dolicho- 
cephalic element with a brachycephalic element. 

The frontal region is of medium height, but narrow and very re- 
ceding. In the sagittal region there is a slight median elevation and 
a slight postcoronoid depression. The temporal region is protube- 
rant, with a slight supramastoid crest. The occiput shows a moder- 
ate convexity. 

The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture is about 
one-half obliterated, and occlusion has begun in the coronal. The 
lambdoid suture is open. There is an apex bone in this suture and a 
small Wormian bone in the right squamous suture. The pterions 
are of the usual H-form. One small parietal foramen occurs on the 
right side, and two medium retromastoid foramina on the left side. 
The mastoids are of medium size. The brow-ridges are moderately 


28 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


developed and confined to the medial portions of the orbits. The 
facial portion is missing. 

The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and there are no post- 
glenoid processes. The base of the skull shows no unusual features. 
There is a medium sized dehiscence in the floor of the left auditory 
meatus. The mandible is of medium development and size, except 
that the mylo-hyoid ridges and genial tubercles are poorly marked. 

45651, Unearthed by workmen. This is the partially mummified 
skull of a young adult male subject. The scalp, hair, and integu- 
ment are preserved on the right half of the cranium. This condi- 
tion is probably due to the fact that the skull was covered with a 
brass vessel, for the mummified tissues and the adjacent bony parts 
show green copper stains. The skull is subbrachycephalic (79.35), 
hypsicephalic (81.52), and akrocephalic (102.74). 

The frontal region of the skull is medium in height, breadth, and 
slope. The sagittal region shows a slight median elevation. The 
temporal regions are rather flat. The occipital region is steep, with 
traces of a torus. The sutures are simple, and obliteration has be- 
gun dorsally in the pterion regions. The half of the skull uncovered 
shows no Wormian bones. ‘The left side shows one large, one 
medium, and one small retromastoid foramen, and the mastoid 
process is of medium size. 

The brow-ridges are limited to the median halves of the supraor- 
bital region and show average development. The nasion depression 
is slight. The nasal bridge is low, of medium breadth, and concavo- 
convex in profile. The nasal aperture is broad, with indistinct 
lower borders and a small spine. There are traces of subnasal 
grooves. The orbits are oblong, with no inclination of their hori- 
zontal axes. On the left side an infraorbital suture is about one-half 
complete. The suborbital fossae are medium; the malars and 
zygomata are large. Alveolar prognathism is very slight. 

The dentition is complete, and the wear of the teeth is slight. The 
teeth are of good quality. The cusps of the upper molars show a 
4-3-3 formula, and the lower molars 5-4—?. The third molars are 
much reduced in size. Traces of shovel incisors may be observed. 
Observations and measurements on the palate and teeth are in- 
complete, because the mandible cannot be disarticulated without 
destroying the mummified tissues. The palate is parabolic, with a 
slight torus. The glenoid fossae are deep, with marked postglenoid 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 29 


processes. The styloids are rudimentary. The other features of the 
skull base, so far as observable, are ordinary. Incomplete pterygo- 
spinous foramina are present. 

The mandible is large, with a prominent chin, and a medium de- 
velopment of other morphological features. 

The hair preserved is straight and black, but rather fine in qual- 
ity. The interior of the skull still contains the dried mass of the 
brain tissues. 

60377, Unearthed by workmen. Fragmentary calvaria of a mid- 
dle-aged male. The length-breadth index is subdolichocepha- 
lic (75.81). The frontal region is of medium breadth, but low and 
retreating. The sagittal region has a slight median elevation. The 
temporal region is moderately convex, as is also the occipital 
region. The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture is 
half obliterated, and, in the coronal, obliteration has begun in the 
lateral portions. The lambdoid suture also shows beginnings of ex- 
ternal obliteration. There are no Wormian bones. Two very small 
parietal foramina are found on the right side, and there are one 
small right and two small left retromastoid foramina. The mas- 
toids are of medium size, but the brow-ridges are small and divided 
into medial and lateral portions. Thefacial portion is fragmentary. 
The nasal aperture is broad. It has no lower borders; the nasal 
floor slopes off into an alveolar clivus without definite transition. 
The nasal spine is rudimentary. The orbits are oblong, low, and 
horizontal. There are no infraorbital sutures. The suborbital 
fossae are shallow. There is a moderate degree of alveolar progna- 
thism. 

The dentition is complete and the crowns of the teeth are mark- 
edly worn. Three molars have been lost in life, and there are traces 
of five alveolar abscesses, but the general quality of the teeth is 
good. The cusps cannot be counted. Evidently the third molars 
are much reduced in size. The palate is of the usual parabolic 
shape. The base of the skull shows a medium development in all 
features. 

The mandible is large and heavy, with thick everted gonial 
angles and extensive attachments of masticatory muscles. The 
mental prominence is submedium in development. Other features 
are ordinary. 


30 


60383, Grave 4, Eastern skeleton. 


INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


Skeleton of a middle-aged 
male. The skull is fragmentary, but seems to have been about 192 
mm. long and approximately 140 mm. broad. It was, then, pro- 
nouncedly dolichocephalic. The frontal region of the calvaria is 


MEASUREMENTS OF CRANIA 











Deformations eee 
Glabello-Occipital length . 
Maximum breadth ....... 
Basion-Bregma height 
Min. Frontal diameter ... 
Total Facial height ...... 
Upper Facial height ...... 
Bizygomatic diameter .... 
Bigonial diameter ........ 
Height of Symphysis ..... 
Bicondylar width ........ 
Min. breadth of Ascending 
RGIS eli in se oe ae 
Height Ascending Ramus . 
Condylc-Symphysea! length 
Height of Orbits: right ... 





Breadth of Orbits: right... 
letteeer, 

INasalcheig htme: a eee a 
Nasalibreadth a. nee 
Basion=Alveon! 0% 0o.tae a5 
Basion-Nasion :2.4+.... 
Palate: External length .. 
External breadth . 
Maximum circumference . 

(above brow-ridges) 

Arc: Nasion-Opisthion.... 
Ave Transverse cies eicr 
Foramen magnum: length 
breadth 

Thickness of Left Parietal 
(above squamous suture) 
Capacit yeu cir eee: 








60388 
Male 
mid. 











60379 
Male 
mid. 





45651 
Male 
y. ad. 


184 
146 
(150) 

(98) 

(117) 
70 
140 
107 
35 





60377 
Male 
mid. 


(186) 
141 


98 














60384 | 56669 
Female |Female 
sub.ad. | y. ad. 





167 169 








133 133 
142 137 
85 91 
110 v4 
68 71 
(124) ? 
97 ? 
33 2 
113 ? 
37 2 
50 2 
100 ? 
31 ? 
31 36 
38 2 
36.5 38 
51 50 
24 25 
98 101 
103 102 
53 53 
64 59 
476 485 
351 345 
301 298 
33 39 
30 32 
3 3.6 
1310 1280 





60378 
Female 
mid. 


oi i i i ee Cr) 


505 


370 
312 
35 
35 
5.3 


1410 


rather low, but of medium breadth and slope. The sagittal region 
has a slight median elevation. The temporal regions are flat, and 
the occipital region is protuberant, with a well-marked inion. The 
sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture shows oblitera- 
tion beginning dorsally, and the lambdoid suture shows considera- 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS ol 


ble ventral occlusion. There are a few small Wormian bones in the 
lambdoid suture. There are no parietal foramina, and the mastoid 
processes are rather small. The brow-ridges are of medium size and 
divided into median and lateral portions. The facial portion is de- 
tached and fragmentary. On the right side is a complete infraorbi- 
tal suture. The malars are large, but the zygomata show only 
medium development. The dentition is complete and moderately 
worn. The teeth are of fair quality, showing a few caries and traces 
of several alveolar abscesses. The cusp formula of the lower molars 
is 5-5-4. The mandible is large, with a prominent mental process, 


CRANIAL INDICES 









































Catalogue number ...:...| 60380 | 60388 | 60379 | 45651 | 60377 | 60384 | 56669 | 60378 
SORE ena ett sci B, e Male | Male | Male | Male | Male |Female |Female |Female 
Length—Breadth ......... 71.35| 72.19] 78.09 | 79.35 | (75.81)| 79.64] 78.70] 78.65 
Height-Length .......... COOKE TAO) Ci2da SOl.On = 2 85.03} 81.07] 76.40 
Height-—Breadth ......... 105.11) 103.70} 99.28} 102.74] ? 106.76 | 108.01| 97.14 
CramoleNModulemses... «2. 157.6 | 154.00) 151.6 | 160.0 ? TAiveomeleOromnlodes 
Ota aeial ee cer oe ck 85.71| 89.19 de toa | Ks 88.71 ? Rg 
Wpper Baecial’. os si... es 53.74 | 51.35 i OOOO? 54.84 ? ? 
Repro GAG aries: cts so aoe eee. 93.69)) | 91.23 ? 96.26; ? 95.15| 99.02 % 
@Mrprraiserte tice. cj. oh. s 78.89 | 78.26 ? ? ? 81.58 ? ? 
teint wer trs ee aie t 78.89| 78.26 ? (4236 |e Or 84.93} 97.74 ? 
IN iced ig bras ley = Seer eee 44.83) 51.92 ? HO, OAN ar 47.06} 50.00 2 
Palato-Maxillary ........ 120.69 | 118.03 a ? 117.24) 120.75) 111.382 Y 





























a well-marked mylo-hyoid ridge, but small genial tubercles. The 
ganial angles are everted. 

60387, Grave 5. These are fragments of the skull of a middle- 
aged male. The teeth are well worn. The palate shows a well-de- 
veloped torus. The fragmentary mandible was large, with promi- 
nent mental process and strongly everted gonial angles. The 
mylo-hyoid ridge and genial tubercles are poorly developed. The 
fragments show strong muscular attachments. No measurements 
could be taken, nor were sufficient portions preserved to permit 
repair of the skull. 

60384, Grave 4, Western skeleton. Skeleton of a sub-adult female 
about eighteen years of age. 

The skull is in a good state of preservation. The frontal region is 
narrow and of medium height and slope. There is a slight median 
frontal crest. The sagittal region is moderately arched, with a 


o2 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


slight postcoronoid depression. The skull is rather narrow. It is 
subbrachycephalic (69.64), hypsicephalic (85.03), and akrocephalic 
(106.76). The temporal region is rather flat, and the occipital curve 
is steep. The sutures are of a simple pattern and have remained 
open. There are no Wormian bones. The pterions are a narrow H in 
shape, and there is but one small left parietal foramen. One medium 
retromastoid foramen is found on each side, and the mastoid 
processes are small. 

The brow-ridges are undeveloped, and there is no nasion depres- 
sion. The nasal bridge is low, of medium breadth, and concavo- 
convex. The nasal aperture is of medium breadth, with dull lower 
borders and a small spine. The orbits are oblong and horizontal, 
and there are no infraorbital sutures. Suborbital fossae are shal- 
low, malars of medium size, and zygomata small. There is a moder- 
ate alveolar prognathism. The dentition is complete, the teeth of 
excellent quality and but slightly worn. The molar cusp formula is 
-s,- Shovel-shaped incisors are present. There is but one caries, 
and one alveolar abscess. On account of reduction and rotation of 
the third molars, the palate is elliptical in shape, with a slight torus. 
The glenoid fossae are of medium depth, with traces of the post- 
glenoid tubercle. The styloids are undeveloped. The middle lacer- 
ate foramina are small, but the petrous parts show a moderate de- 
pression. The posterior lacerate foramina are large. There are no 
other features of the skull base of particular note, except that post- 
condyloid foramina are absent and there are no dehiscences in the 
floor of the auditory meatus. The mandible is of medium size, but 
with a rather low and broad ascending ramus and a shallow sigmoid 
notch. 

60381, Grave 2. Fragmentary skull of a young adult female. Al- 
though measurements cannot be taken, the subject was certainly 
dolichocephalic. The frontal region shows medium height, breadth, 
and slope. The calvaria is narrow in the sagittal region and shows 
a slight postcoronoid depression. The temporal regions are flat and 
the occiput is protuberant. The sutures are simple in pattern and 
obliteration has not begun. There are no Wormian bones, no parie- 
tal or retromastoid foramina. The pterions are of the usual H-form. 
The mastoid processes are small. There is a medium development 
of the supraorbital ridges, which are divided into median and lat- 
eral portions. No depression occurs at nasion. The nasal bridge is 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 33 


broken away. The nasal aperture is of medium breadth, with sharp 
lower borders and a medium-sized spine. Traces of subnasal 
grooves were noticed. The orbits approximate to a square form and 
show slight inclination of their horizontal axes. Malars and zy- 
gomata are broken. There seems to have been a moderate degree of 
alveolar protrusion. 

The dentition is complete, and the teeth are but slightly worn. 
The quality is fair. The dental cusp formula for molars is 555. 
There are no shovel-shaped incisors. Four alveolar abscesses have 
left their traces in the dental arch. The palate is parabolic, with a 
high roof. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and have no 
postglenoid processes. Styloids are undeveloped. The skull base is 
fragmentary, and the vault has suffered considerable post-mortem 
deformation. The mandible is of medium size and shows poor de- 
velopment of the mylo-hyoid ridge and the genial tubercles. 

56669, Unearthed by workmen. ‘This is the calvarium of a young 
adult female. Its description is very similar to that of No. 60384. 
It is also subbrachycephalic (78.70), hypsicephalic (81.07), and 
akrocephalic (103.01). In features of the skull vault it is almost 
identical with the previously described female skull. The orbits, 
however, are high and rounded; the suborbital fossae are pro- 
nounced and there is marked alveolar prognathism. Most of the 
teeth have dropped out, but it is evident that the dentition was 
complete and that the third molars were much reduced. ‘Traces 
of one alveolar abscess were noted. The palate is parabolic. The 
base of the skull presents the usual low relief found in the crania of 
female Indians. There is no accompanying mandible. 

60378, Unearthed by workmen. Skeleton of a middle-aged female. 
The facial portion of the skull is broken away and the mandible is 
fragmentary. The calvaria is subbrachycephalic (78.65), hypsi- 
cephalic (76.40), and metriocephalic (97.14). It is of good size 
and capacity (1410 cc.). The morphological features are those 
of an average Indian female, with points of sex distinction well 
marked. 

60385, Grave 4. These are the bones of the ‘‘child nearest the 
mother.” Since the milk dentition is complete the child must have 
been twenty months to three years of age. 

60386, Grave 4. These are the bones of the “‘infant by the side 
of the other child.” In this case also the milk dentition is complete. 


o4 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


The child was then within the limits of age stated in the case of the 
preceding subject. 

60383, Grave 3. Bones of an infant. The first milk molar is 
erupted but the second is unerupted. The age of the infant was 
then twelve to twenty-one months. 

60382, Grave 10. Bones of a child. The first lower milk molar 
has erupted, the lower canine is almost erupted, and the second 
milk molar is unerupted. The age of the child at death was prob- 
ably between sixteen and twenty-four months. The orbits of this 
child show somewhat dubious traces of symmetrical osteoporosis. 
This is a nutritional disease of obscure nature, especially common 
in crania of Peruvian and Central American Indians. The writer 
has seen it in ancient Indian crania from the Southwest; but has 
never before observed it in crania of Eastern Indians. 

60389, Grave 9. Skeleton of a child. The milk dentition is 
complete and shows a certain amount of wear. The child was aged 
three to five years. Here again the left orbit shows signs of an 
osteoporitic condition. 


Lone BONES 


The femora of this series display ordinary Indian characteristics 
and do not merit individual descriptions. The middle shaft section 
is usually prismatic, the linea aspera is well developed, and there is 
a marked pilastter. Curvature is medium. Some form of a third 
trochanter is generally present. Platymeria is pronounced. Tor- 
sion of the femoral head is medium to pronounced. 

The tibiae have strongly retroverted heads. The externa! tibial 
condyle is usually more or less convex. Platycnemia is marked. 
The shaft form is usually a lateral prism. ‘‘Squatting facets” on 
the anterior lip of the inferior articular surface are usual. 

The other long bones present no features of special interest. 

The long bones of three male skeletons and three female skeletons 
were sufficiently preserved to permit their utilization for the cal- 
culation of stature. For this purpose the well-known formulae of 
Pearson have been utilized.! 

The tibio-femoral index in this group, as in many other Indian 
groups, is extremely high. Stature calculated on the tibiae, conse- 


1 Pearson, Karl, On the Reconstruction of the Stature of Prehistoric Races, Philosophical 
Trans. 192, A, 1899, p. 196. 


35 








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36 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE 


quently, is somewhat higher than when calculated from the lengths 
of other long bones. In the present instance, formulae utilizing the 
lengths of both femur and tibia have been utilized, or, when neces- 
sary, the mean stature has been deduced from the results arrived at 
by using formulae for separate bones. 

No. 60380, an extremely dolichocephalic male, must have had a 
stature in life of about 171.5 cm. On the basis of femora the stature 
of this subject is 168.5, but the tibia yields a stature of 174.4 cm. 

No. 60388, another dolichocephalic male, was about 174.3 cm. 
tall. Here again the tibia yields too high a stature (175.1 em.). No. 
60377, a mesocephalic male, had a much lower stature, only 163.6 
em., reckoned on the basis of the femur. The tibiae are missing. If 
these had been present the estimate of stature would have been 
raised to about 165 cm. 

No. 60384, a sub-adult female, had a stature of about 157.5 cm. 
No. 60378, a rather large female, had a stature of about 161.8 cm. 
No. 60381, a young adult female, was about 158 cm. in stature. 

Pelvis. The pelves show the usual marks of sex differentiation. 
With the exception of that of No. 60378, they were too fragmentary 
for the taking of measurements. 


MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES OF PELvis oF No. 60378, FEMALE 


mm. mm. 
Pelvis as a whole Ossa Innominata 
Breadth Maximum ... 257 Height 
Superior Strait right .. .... casera 200 
Breadth Maximum .- 124 left: 2.5.3 eee 201 
Sagittal diameter ... 115 Breadth 
Distance between right’... 6. ae ee 148 
Ischiatic Spines ...... (95) left: ..3'o. dee ? 
Height of Sacrum ....... 106 Sacral Index 33 eee 116.03 
Breadth of Sacrum ..... 123 Index of Right 
Pelyioz indexers tee eee 78.— Innominate Bone ...... 74.— 
Brim ndext wt eer 92.74 


The brim index of this pelvis is so high that one might judge it to 
be that of a male, were it not for the morphological features, which 
are clearly female. The ischiatic notch is broad; the preauricular 
sulcus is well marked; the subpubic angle is large; and the ascend- 
ing ramus of the ischium and the symphysis pubis are characteris- 


AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS Oo” 


tically female. The condition of the pubic symphysis indicates the 
ninth phase of Todd’s age gradations. 

Vertebrae. In general the vertebrae of these skeletons present 
no features of special interest. Marginal exostoses occur on the 
vertebrae of No. 60377, a middle-aged male. In the case of 60383, 
another middle-aged male, the vertebrae seem to be carious. One 
suspects tuberculosis, but it is scarcely safe to attempt a definite 
diagnosis. 


SUMMARY 


In addition to the usual tall dolichocephalic type of Eastern 
Indian there is present in this series a mesocephalic type due to 
admixture of a short brachycephalic stock. The evidence of this 
admixture is to be seen in the shortening of the skull, the increase of 
breadth across the posterior portions of the parietals, increase of 
the skull height, shorter face, and broader, lower nose. The meas- 
urements of some of the mesocephals and subbrachycephals are 
such as to make one suspect some occipital deformation. This, 
however, is not apparent from the contours of the occipital bones. 
In the short series from Winthrop this mixed type actually pre- 
dominates. 





PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI, No. 2 


OFFICIAL REPORTS 


ON THE TOWNS OF 


TEQUIZISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN 
TEOTIHUACAN SENT BY FRANCISCO DE CASTANEDA 
TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP Il, AND THE COUNCIL 
OF THE INDIES, IN 1580 


TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH AN 
INTRODUCTION AND NOTES 


BY 


ZELIA NUTTALL 


TWO PLATES AND TWO TEXT FIGURES 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1926 


KRAUS REPRINT CO. 
Millwood, New York 
1974 


PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI, No. 2 


OFFICIAL REPORTS 


ON THE TOWNS OF 


TEQUIZISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN 
TEOTIHUACAN SENT BY FRANCISCO DE CASTANEDA 
TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II, AND THE COUNCIL 
OF THE INDIES, IN 1580 


TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH AN 
INTRODUCTION AND NOTES 


BY 


ZELIA NUTTALL 


TWO PLATES AND TWO TEXT FIGURES 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1926 


KRAUS REPRINT CO. 
Millwood, New York 
1974 


COPYRIGHT, 1926 
BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 


AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher 
KRAUS REPRINT CO. 


A USS. Division of Kraus-Thomson Organization Limited 


Printed in U.S.A. 


NOTE 


THE remarkable acumen of the Spanish authorities in send- 
ing out a questionnaire to many of the settlements through- 
out the Spanish domain in America is amply justified by the 
wealth of material collected by this means. The replies to 
this list of questions returned by the various towns are all 
important but special interest centers on that sent by San 
Juan Teotihuacan on account of the famous ruins at that 
site. 

Mrs. Nuttall early discovered the great importance of this 
manuscript and has kindly translated it for the present 
paper. 

The Museum is greatly indebted to Clarence L. Hay, 
Esqr., for its publication. 


CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Director. 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, 
February 8, 1926. 


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES 


_Puate 1. Map or TEQuIzISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND 
SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN 


Puate 2. A Part or THE Map By ALONSO DE SANTA CRUz (circa 
1570) 


FIGURES 


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ee Pr cone AME OF ACOLMAN ..... .. ... . 64 


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INTRODUCTION 


In 1900, Sefior Don Pedro Torres Lanzas, the distinguished Direc- 
tor of the Archivo de Indias in Seville, in Volume I of his valuable 
Inventory of the Plans and Maps contained in the Archives, 
published the title of the *‘ Map of the towns of Acolman, San Juan 
Teotihuacan, Tequizistlan and adjoining towns by the Corregidor 
Don Francisco de Castafieda, accompanied by a descriptive 
Relacién [dated 1580], of each of said towns, made in compliance 
with His Majesty’s Instructions.” ! 

Separated from its Relacién for years, the Map was, and still 
may be, exhibited in one of the treasure filled show-cases of the 
Archivo. It thus came about that, in 1911, on registering the 
contents of a ‘“‘Legajo”’ attractively labelled ‘‘Indiferente Gen- 
eral,’ I came across the Relacién by mere chance, and after read- 
ing it with intense interest, copied it forthwith, as a document of 
utmost importance that should be generally known. 

I had not seen the Torres Lanzas Inventory and was unaware 
at the time that, in 1905, Sefior Francisco del Paso y Troncoso had 
actually published the Relacién with the Map, in Volume VI of 
his “‘Papeles de Nueva Espajia,” etc.;? for this, like others of his 
important and valuable publications, was and is, unfortunately, 
practically unobtainable and inaccessible to students. 

In the monumental work on the ‘‘ Population of the Valley of 
Teotihuacan,”’ recently issued by Sefior Manuel Gamio,’? the Map 
is reproduced, but the Relacién, while referred to, is not described 

1 See ‘‘ Relacion descriptiva de los Mapas, planos, etc., de Mexico y Floridas existentes en 
el Archivo General de Indias, por Pedro Torres Lanzas.” Sevilla, 1900. Tomol, p. 26. This 
document is registered in the Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla, as follows: Indiferente Gen- 
-eral — Descripciones poblaciones y derroteras de viajes. Nueva Espafia. Afios 1521-1818. 
Estante 145 — Cajén 7 — Legajo 6. 

The text of the questionnaire is translated from the ‘‘ Memoria”’ published in “‘ Relaciones 
de Yucatdn.’”’ Coleccién de Documentos Inéditos . . . publicada por la Real Academia de 
la Historia, Segunda Serie, Tomo XI. 

2 ‘*Papeles de Nueva Espaiia publicados de orden y con fondos del Gobierno Mexicana, 
Segunda Serie. Geografia y Estadistica. Tomo VI. Relaciones Geogrdficas de la Diocesis de 
Mexico. Manuscritos dela Real Academia de la Historia de Madrid y del Archivo de Indias en 
Sevilla. Afios 1579-1582.”” Madrid, 1905. Text, pp. 209-230. 

3 ‘La Poblacién del Valle de Teotihuacan.” Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento. Direc- 


cién de Antropologia. Mexico, 1922. 
45 


46 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


as a source of invaluable and authentic information, nor is it de- 
servedly utilized and recorded. | 

It therefore seems opportune that a publication be made, in 
English, and in extenso, of the Relacién, for the benefit of Ameri- 
canists. This document is one of the many that were drawn up 
and sent from Mexico to Spain in obedience to a remarkable decree, 
dated May 25, 1577, issued by King Philip II and distributed 
broadcast throughout his New World possessions. This decree 
reads: 


‘Instructions and memorandum for the drawing up of the re- 
ports which are to be made for the ‘ Description of the Indies’ His 
Majesty is having made, to facilitate the good government and 
ennoblement of the same. 

‘Firstly: The governors, corregidors, or mayors to whom the 
Viceroys or Audiences or other government officials and adminis- 
trators send these printed instructions and memorandum are first 
of all to make a list and memorial of the towns inhabited by 
Spaniards or by Indians within their jurisdictions, in which only 
the names of these towns are to be entered, written clearly and 
legibly. This is to be immediately sent to said government offi- 
cials so that it can be returned to His Majesty and the Council of 
the Indies jointly with the reports drawn up in each town. 

“Said printed instructions and memorandum are to be dis- 
tributed throughout all towns of Spaniards and Indians in each 
jurisdiction in which there are Spaniards, sending them to the 
Councils, or, if these are lacking, to the parish priests or to the 
monks in charge of religious instruction, with direct orders to 
the councils or a recommendation from His Majesty to the priests 
and monks, that within a short time they answer and fulfil their 
obligations. 

“The reports made are to be sent to the above officials, with 
the printed instructions, so that, as they go on receiving them they 
can redistribute them to other towns to which none have been 
previously sent. 

‘““In the towns and cities where the governors or mayors or 
other officials reside, these are either to write the reports accord- 
ing to the instructions, or to have this done by persons with a 
knowledge of the affairs of the country. The persons charged 
with the drawing up of the report of each town are to give answers. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 47 


to the questions in the memorandum and observe the following 
order and form. 

“Firstly: On a separate sheet, as a superscription to their re- 
port, they are to write the.day, month and year dates, with the 
_ name of the person or persons who participated in making it; also 
, the name of the governor or other person who sent them the said 
instructions. 

“‘ After carefully reading each paragraph of the memorandum, 
they are to write down separately what they have to say, answer- 
ing each one of the questions it contains, one after the other. 
Those questions to which they have nothing to answer are to be 
omitted without comment, passing on to those that follow, until 
all are read. The answers given are to be short and clear. What 
is certain is to be given as such, what is not is to be recorded as 
doubtful, so that the reports may be exact and in strict conformity 
to the instructions and memorandum.” 


The latter consists of a series of most carefully formulated, 
penetrating and comprehensive inquiries, and constitutes a 
‘‘questionnaire”’ so remarkable for its acumen that I have adopted 
the plan of presenting the questions in the order established by the 
royal questionnaire and, after each one, in succession, the answers 
to it sent in from the four towns. | 

The combined evidence is thus presented in a concentrated and 
more interesting form, that will facilitate the survey and study 
of the fresh data presented concerning one of the most important 
archaeological regions in America. 

The Relacién was supplemented by the interesting map that is - 
reproduced as Plate 1. The reproduction in Plate 2 is from a 
photograph of the same district containing the four towns, as 
represented in the famous map of Mexico and its surroundings 
made by the cosmographer of King Philip II, Alonso de Santa 
Cruz, about 1570. 

As the main purpose of this publication is that of placing the 
valuable record within the reach of students, I have confined my- 
self in my notes to drawing attention to certain important points 
and elucidating a few statements that are obscure or misleading. 

Descriptions of the towns of Tequizistlan, Tepechpan, Acolman, 
and San Juan Teotihuacan, and their dependencies, were composed 
by the illustrious Sefior Francisco de Castafieda, the Corregidor of 


48 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


said towns, for His Majesty, in obedience to the royal instructions 
transmitted to him by the illustrious Sefior Gordian Cassasano, 
accountant and administrator of the Royal Revenue of this New 
Spain. 

The description of each town is signed by those persons present 
who could sign. 

A list of said towns and those subordinate to them accompanies 
each description. 

The towns included in the circuit and jurisdiction of Tequizistlan 
are as follows: 

Firstly: Tequizistlan, chief town, with its subordinates Totol- 
zingo and Acaltecoya. 

Secondly: Tepechpan, chief town, with its subordinates San 
Miguel Atlanmaxac, Santiago Saqualuca, Santa Ana Tlachahualco, 
San Francisco Temazcalapa, San Matheo Teopancalca, San Pedro 
Tulamiguacan, San Xriptoual Culhuacazingo, Santa Maria Maquix- 
co, Sant Jhoan Tlacaleco, San Bartolome Atocpan, San Xeronimo 
Chiapa, Santa Maria Suchitepec, its subordinates, and San Juan 
Cuyoa. 

Thirdly: Acolman, the capital, with its subordinates Santiago 
Atla, San Miguel Jumetla, San Agustin Tonala, los Tres Reyes 
Yzquitlan, Santa Maria Chiapa, San Matheo Tuchatlauco, San 
Lucas Tlamazingo, San Juan Tepehuizco, Santiago Nopaltepec, 
San Juan Tlaxinea, San Martin Huiznahuac, San Felipe Sacatepec, 
San Tomas Atlauco, San Matheo Tezcacohuac, Santa Maria 
Atenpa, San Marcos Quacyocan, San Pedro Tepetitlan, San Antonio 
* Huiztonco, Santa Maria Tlatecpa, San Bartolome Quauhtla- 
pecco, San Juan Chicnahuatecapa, San Martin Aticpac, San 
Niculas Tenextlacotla, Santa Maria Astatonacazco, Santa Maria 
Atenpa, Santa Maria Saguala, and San Juan Atlatongo. 

Fourthly: San Juan Teotihuacan, with its subordinates San 
Lorenco Atezcapa, San Miguel Tlotezcac, San Matheo Tenango, 
San Sebastian Chimalpan, Santa Maria Coatlan, San Francisco 
Magatlan, San Martin Teacal, San Pedro Tlaxican, Santiago Tol- 
man, Sant Andres Oztocpachocan, Los Reyes Aticpac, San Antonio 
Tlaxomolco, San Agustin Ohuayocan, San Pedro Ocotitlan, San 
Miguel Tlaguac, San Luis Xiuhquemecan and Juan Tlaylotlacan. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 49 


THE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS THERETO 


QUESTION I 


In the towns with Spanish inhabitants the name of the district 
or province is to be stated, also the meaning of the name and the 
reason it is so named. 

TEQUIZISTLAN 


The town of Tequizistlan is the capital of the jurisdiction. It 
is in the district of Texcoco, and was in ancient times an indepen- 
dent town that rendered allegiance to its natural lords until Neza- 





FR ? 
a b 3 Cc 


Ficure 1. PLAck-NAMES OF TExcoco. 


hualcoyotzin, lord of Texcoco, became an ally and confederate of 
Montezuma, lord of Mexico, and with tyranny subjugated said 
district, incorporating it into Texcoco:and Mexico. The natives 
were unable to explain the meaning of the name Texcoco.! 


1 Evidence that the primitive town of Texcoco, like the residence and hill garden of Neza- 
hualcoyotl, was situated in or among the rocky foot-hills is furnished by the hieroglyph of the 
town, of which several variants are recorded in the native picture-writings and are retained in 
the arms of the town granted by Philip II and still in use. 

Its main element is a rocky hill, ‘‘ Texcalli,” that conveys the first syllable of the name. In 
the ‘‘ Code en Croix’’ of the Aubin-Goupil Collection, the rocky nature of the hill is graphically 
rendered and this is surmounted by an earthen pot with two handles (a Comitl) that conveys 
the syllable ‘‘co’’ —an affix that signifies ‘‘in’’ (Fig. 1,a). 

In the Codex Mendoza, the hill is ingeniously formed by three signs for ‘‘ Tet] ,’’ stone, form- 
ing three peaks, between which — “‘co,’’ = in — are two conventionalized drawings of a popular 
medicinal rock-plant (a Senecio), either of the names of which, ‘‘ Texcotli’”’ or ‘Texcapatli,” 
conveys the first two syllables of the name, while “ Tetl’’ acts as a determinative (Fig. 1,5). 

A third variant occurs in the ‘‘ Histoire de la Nation Chichiméque”’ (Catalogue Raisonné de 
la Collection Goupil, E. Boban. Atlas. Planches 2 and 3), where, in a conical hill (covered with 
a design consisting of diagonals and dots), the pot ‘‘Comitl”’ is figured above the sign for stone, 
“Tetl.’? In this case two duplications of sound occur, that is: ‘‘ Texcalli” or hill, and ‘‘ Tetl”’ or 
stone. The duplication of ‘‘co’’ was obtained by placing the ‘‘Comitl’’ in (co) the hill (Fig. 
1,c). Of the three examples given, this is the only one in which the vowel ‘‘co”’ is duplicated 
and the full name ““Texcoco”’ is conveyed. Inthe others, it was evidently considered sufficient 
to record ‘‘Texco”’ only. 

For the etymology of the names of the other towns dealt with in this document, see the 
answers to Question XIII farther on. " 


50 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


TEPECHPAN 


The town of Tepechpan and its dependencies are held by 
Geronimo de Baessa, citizen of Mexico City. It is in the province 
of ‘Texcoco and was an independent town until Nezahualcoyotzin, 
lord of Texcoco, tyrannized over it and made it a subject of Texcoco. 


ACOLMAN 


Acolman is in the district of Texcoco and was an independent 
town where the Chichimecs had their metropolis until Nezahual- 
coyotzin, lord of Texcoco, tyrannized over them, as will be told 
farther on. 

TEOTIHUACAN 


The town of San Juan is in the district of Texcoco. In ancient 
times it was the capital of a province because the surrounding towns, 
which were Otumba, Tepeapulco, Tlaquilpa and others, acknow]l- 
edged it as such in heathen times, until .Nezahualcoyotzin, lord 
of Texcoco, conquered them in war and tyrannized over them. + 


QUESTION II 


Who was the discoverer and conqueror of said province and by 
whose order or mandate was it discovered? Give the year of its 
discovery and conquest and all that can be readily learnt about it. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


As it is publicly known that it was Don Hernan Cortés, the Ma:- 
ques del Valle, who discovered New Spain in 1519, reference is here 
made to the description which will be written in the City of Mexico. 


TEPECHPAN 


The discovery of said town in New Spain was made in 1519 by 
the Marques del Valle, Hernan Cortés, as is referred to in the 
description of the town of Tequizistlan. 


1 The important facts established by the above answers to Question I are that Tequizistlan 
and Tepechpan were ‘‘independent towns,” that Acolman was ‘‘the Chichimec metropolis,” 
and that Teotihuacan was ‘‘the capital of a province’’ until all four towns were conquered by 
the allied lords of Mexico and Texcoco. The date of this conquest, etc., will be given in the 
note pertaining to the answers given to Question XIV. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 51 


ACOLMAN 


As is publicly known, the discoverer of this town and of New 
Spain was Hernan Cortés, the Marques del Valle. The order 
and mandate and the year of its discovery are not set down here 
because in the description to be made in the City of Mexico these 
will be stated by the person in charge. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The Marques del Valle was the discoverer of this land. 


QUESTION III 


State in general the climate and quality of said province or dis- 
trict; whether it is cold or hot, dry or damp, with much water or 
little and at what season there is more or less; and the prevailing 
winds, whether violent and from what quarter and at what season 
of the year. 

TEQUIZISTLAN 


Its temperature is cold and damp on account of its being situated 
near the great lagoon in the midst of canals. The rains fall gener- 
ally from May until the end of September. The winds blow from 
the South from January to the end of March in which month it 
blows with such violence that it causes many natives to suffer 
dangerously from headaches. From April onward, until the rains 
begin, the North wind generally blows with great strength at sun- 
set. This does less harm to the natives than the South wind. 


TEPECHPAN 


The temperature and quality of the climate of the capital 
Tepechpan is cold and damp, for the greater part of it lies low 
among canals. All of its dependencies are in a cold, dry region. 
Rains fall generally from the first of May to the end of September. 
South winds are prevalent from Christmas until the end of March 
and are very violent during the whole of this month, causing ill- 
ness among the natives. From April onwards the North wind 
blows and is less harmful, for in the day time it is temperate. All 
night it blows violently but as at this time the natives have re- 
tired into their homes it does not harm them. 


52 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


ACOLMAN 


The capital town of Acolman is cold and damp on account of 
being situated among canals and of having bad night dews. Its 
dependencies are in a cold region and lack water because the only 
water they have is rain water in basins or pools. From the middle 
of December until the end of March the South wind gives the na- 
tives headaches and pains in their bodies. In March it blows with 
great force. When the rains begin, the North wind blows and is 
unhealthy for the natives even if it blows temperately. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The region in which said town and its dependencies lie, is cold, 
excepting its capital which is cold and damp on account of being 
situated among canals and fountains all proceeding from flowing 
springs. In winter from Christmas to March the South wind 
blows, with greater violence in March. It is unhealthful for the 
natives. From March to the end of October the North wind blows 
but does no harm to the natives because it 1s tempered. 


QUESTION IV 


State whether the country is level, rough, flat or mountainous; 
with many or few rivers and fountains, with abundance or scarc- 
ity of water; whether fertile or lacking in pasture; with an 
abundance or scarcity of fruits and sustenance. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


Its entire district consists of a level plain open on all sides 
without any trees. Towards the East there is a high range of 
mountains. It lacks wood. The natives drink water from wells. 
It lacks fodder but yields an abundance of maize and beans, 
cactus fruits, cherries and agaves, of which the natives make good 
use. 

‘TEPECHPAN 


The land is flat and in Tepechpan and its dependencies there 
are very few trees. All the natives drink stored rain water al- 
though the river named San Juan passes through the town. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 53 


ACOLMAN 


The capital Acolman is situated in’ a plain at the foot of a 
mound. It is level and has no fountains. A river called ‘“‘de San 
Juan” runs by said town and is divided into three canals with 
which they irrigate a great piece of land nearly a league long 
and half a league wide. It is prolific in fodder and sustenance. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The capital, San Juan, and all its subordinate towns lie in a 
plain and the farthest of the latter is situated at a distance of two 
leagues from the capital. Towards the North, a league distant, 
is a great mountain which the natives name Tenan, which in 
Spanish means ‘‘mother,”’ because many small hills issue from it.! 


1 The second half of this name, ‘‘nan,’’ is an abbreviation of ‘‘ Nantli,’’ mother, while the 
first, ‘‘te,” is a contraction of ‘ Tetl,’’ stone; thus the ancient Nahuatl name of the mountain 
signified ‘‘Stone Mother,” or ‘‘ Mother of Stone.’’ The native explanation that the moun- 
tain was so named “‘ because many small hills issue from it’’ and because “‘it had given birth 10 
many other mountains” (see answer to Question X XI) is shown to be strikingly appropriate by 
the report on the geology of the mountain recently published by Sefior Ezequiel Ordofiez, the 
distinguished ex-Director of the Geographical Institute of Mexico, in the monumental work 
already cited on the Valley of Teotihuacan issued by the Department of Anthropology. 

Sefior Ordofiez writes that the mountain, an extinct volcano, ‘‘does not now show its crater 
which had once vomited such great volumes of lava and loose stones, doubtlessly because the 
residue of the last lava flow had consolidated and obstructed its mouth. Before becoming 
extinct, however, it gave birth to a number of small subordinate volcanoes which, like parasite 
volcanoes, are scattered Over its eastern, northern, and western slopes, and look very fresh.” 
From the foregoing, it may be inferred that the native name ‘‘ Mother of Stone”’ dated from a 
period when the dying volcano gave periodical birth to the small craters, possibly in compara- 
tively recent times. Compare note 1 on p. 74. 

Additional light is thrown on the ancient association of the mountain with the production 
of stone by other facts recorded by Sefior Ordofiez and also reported upon by the energetic and 
painstaking young geologist, Sefior Diaz Lozano, in the same monumental work. Both geolo- 
gists point out, as a characteristic of the now extinct volcano, the enormous quantities of loose 
stones and volcanic bombs which it cast forth with great force and scattered over the adjacent 
plains. Sefior Ordofiez states that the first inhabitants of the Valley of Teotihuacan must have 
found it thickly strewn with loose stones which would have constituted an inducement for them 
to settle there and build a city. Close by, moreover, was an inexhaustible supply of loose basal- 
tic stones of a portable size, for between the base of the ‘‘ Mother of Stone”’ and the site of the 
ancient metropolis there are vast areas covered with basaltic agglomerations which can easily 
be detached and there are also great caves or pockets entirely filled with loose stones. One of 
these caves is two hundred and ten feet long, sixty feet wide and forty-five feet high — others 
are three hundred feet long and nine feet deep. Besides this loose portable material the mountain 
furnished different kinds of basalt which were shaped and worked at a later period, a peculiar 
basalt whose structure furnished very compact and hard, thin, flat stone slabs which the primi- 
tive builders used as flags for flooring, in making drains and as supports for cornices. Pointed 
fragments of this hard stone were also employed as chisels by the ancient sculptors; besides all 
this valuable building material the same mountain had produced the immense quantity of 
the very light, porous loose fragments of lava, of various colors, which are so extensively em- 
ployed by the ancient constructors. The entire appropriateness of the name bestowed upon 
the prolific mountain by the ancient builders is therefore amply demonstrated, as well as its 


54 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


Another hill, medium sized, shelters the southeastern portion of 
the plain. In the territory of the subordinate towns there is a lack 
of water and the natives drink stored rain water. In the capital 
there is an abundance of water and many springs close together | 
that feed a large river on which the natives have a mill. The 
water of said river irrigates two leagues of land, which is the 
whole length of its course. It passes by the towns of Acolman, 
Tepechpan, Tequizistlan, and the boundary of Texcoco, and emp- 
ties itself into the lagoon. This region yields an abundance of 

fodder and food supplies. | 


QUESTION V 


State whether the district is inhabited. by many or few Indians 
and whether in former times it had a greater or lesser population; 
the causes for the increase or diminution and whether the inhabi- 
tants live in regular towns permanently or not. 

State also what is the character and condition of their intel- 
ligence, inclinations and modes of life; also whether different 
languages are spoken throughout the whole province or whether 
they have one which is spoken by all. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


In ancient times, before the Conquest, it was densely populated 
and had more than four thousand tribute-paying inhabitants. 
After the Conquest many died from an illness like itch or mange 
all over the body. Since then they have always had illnesses. 
The Indians think that these have increased because they now 
have more luxury than in former times and because, before the 


unquestionable antiquity; for all indications point to the name having been invented at a re- 
mote period when small craters were still being formed and when the vast agglomerations of 
portable building material had been discovered and exploited by the founders of the great me- 
tropolis, that owed its existence to the vast amount of portable stones so conveniently at hand. 

The ancient name ‘‘ Tenan”’ is quite unknown to the present inhabitants of the region, as I 
found on making many inquiries. Nor is the old name recorded in the recent publication men- 
tioned above. 

In a document dated 1608, published in this same work (Part III, p. 573), the name of the 
mountain is given as ‘‘ Temiztepetl,’’ called ‘‘ Cerro Gordo,” and the latter Spanish name is the 
only one by which it is known by the natives nowadays. The fact that the ancient name 
“Tenan,’’ which appears to hark back to the nebulous period when Teotihuacan was founded, 
is in the highly developed and ancient Nahuatl tongue furnishes a valuable indication that 
the occupation of the Valley by Toltecs, a Nahuatl-speaking race, long ante-dated the arrival 
of the Aztecs in historical times. , 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 55 


Conquest, they used to go naked and sleep on the ground and eat 
cactus leaves, cooked agave leaves and other plants yielding 
scant nourishment. Now they live well, eat delicate viands, baked 
bread, chicken, and beef and mutton, and wear clothes and sleep 
high [that is, in beds] covered at night with blankets. Any excess 
makes them ill, especially the drinking of pulque, which is gen- 
eral amongst them and is drunk from their childhood. Previous 
to the Conquest, when they did not drink nor were permitted 
to do so and were punished for drinking, they died old. Nowadays 
they do not live as long.!_ This town has no streets nor have its 
dependencies, which are scattered about. The inhabitants are of 
medium intelligence. Their inclination is toward cultivating their 
lands excepting in one dependency which lies on the shore of the 
lagoon, in which the natives live on fishing and catching ducks 
and other birds with nets. They speak the Nahuatl language. 


TEPECHPAN 


At the present time this town and its dependencies have nine 
hundred and fifty tribute payers. In former times, and a short 
time before the Conquest, it was densely populated. The inhabi- 
tants have dwindled on account of the diseases they have had, 
which, according to the native belief, proceeded from their having 
less work and more luxury than before the Conquest, and also 
from the drinking of pulque and because at present the natives 
eat fowl and other birds whereas formerly they ate cactus leaves 
and the pulpy agave leaves and other herbs of little sustenance. 
The town is not a regular but a scattered one. The foremost or 
chief natives are of medium understanding and the rest are rude 
and dull. They are inclined to cultivate the land and maintain 
themselves by this exclusively. The Nahuatl tongue is commonly 
spoken, with the exception of some few natives who speak the 
Otomi tongue. 

ACOLMAN 

In past times it had many inhabitants. The natives were not 
able to tell us anything more certain than that in every house there 
lived six or seven married couples, besides unmarried youths. 
They died of the illnesses which spread amongst them. At the 


1 For interesting evidence concerning the relative health and longevity of the natives before 
and after the Conquest, see the answers to Question XV and notes thereto. 


56 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


present day according to the list of tribute payers, it has nineteen 
hundred of these. It is built without order and is not a regular 
town. Its inhabitants are well disposed although dull of under- 
standing. They live by cultivating the soil. The language they 
generally use is the Nahuatl. A few speak Otomi. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The natives say that in ancient times this town was thickly pop- 
ulated by a great number of inhabitants. At present it has besides 
the ordinary population, according to appraisement, one thousand 
and six hundred payers of tribute. The natives say that many of 
them died during an epidemic which occurred a year before the 
discovery of New Spain. The town was not founded on a regular 
plan, but consists of a number of scattered houses. The inhabi- 
tants of said town are a polished people of a good understanding ! 
who always live on the produce of their land. They speak 
Nahuatl generally, but a very few of them speak the Otomi and 
Popoluca tongues. 


QUESTION VI 


State the latitude in which these towns of Spaniards lie if this 
has been taken or if known or if there is any one who knows how 
to take it. State on what days of the year the sun does not cast 
a shadow at noon. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


This town lies in a straight line directly north of the City of Mex- 
ico at a distance of three leagues, therefore its latitude would be 
ten minutes higher than that of said city. In the middle of May 
and at the end of June the sun casts no shadow at noon. 


TEPECHPAN 


The latitude of the town of Tepechpan is about twelve minutes 
higher than the City of Mexico as its distance is about three 


1 Attention is drawn to the significant fact that whereas the inhabitants of Teotihuacan are 
described as ‘‘a polished people of a good understanding,” those of two of the.other towns are 
entered as ‘‘of medium intelligence,” and those of Acolman as ‘‘ well disposed although dull 
of understanding.” The higher degree of culture was evidently a survival from the time when 
Teotihuacan was the capital of a province, the residence of the ruling intellectual class and a 
great religious centre. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 57 


leagues to the North of said City. In the middle of May and 
at the end of June the sun casts no shadow because the sun is at 
the zenith and shadows are under one’s feet and do not incline in 
any direction. 

ACOLMAN 


Acolman lies due north from the City of Mexico at a distance of 
a little more than three leagues; the difference in the latitude is 
nine minutes. In the middle of May and almost at the end of 
June the sun casts no shadow at noon and the shadow is underfoot. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


On account of the lack of the necessary instrument it was not 
possible to determine the latitude of the town, but, judging by that 
of the City of Mexico, it must be a little over twenty degrees. At 
the end of the month of May and in June the sun casts no shadow 
at noon.! 


QUESTION VII? 


State the distance in leagues between each city or town occu- 
pied by Spaniards and the city in which resides the Audiencia to 
whose jurisdiction it belongs or the residence of the governor to 
whom it is subject — also the direction in which said cities and 
towns lie from each other. 


QUESTION VIII 


Give also the distance in leagues between each city or town oc- 
cupied by Spaniards and those of the adjoining district, stating in 
what direction they lie; whether the leagues are long or short, 
the country level or broken and mountainous; whether the roads 
are straight or winding and good or bad for travel. 


QUESTION IX 


State the name and surname that every city or town has or had 
and the reason, if known, why they were so named; also who was 


1 In the Valley of Mexico and at Teotihuacan the sun is in the zenith twice a year: on 
May 17th at about 11.33 a.m., on its journey northward, and on July 26th, at about 11.43 a.m., 
on its return southward, at legal time (that is, the local mean time of the 105th Meridian). 

2 The following six questions are grouped together, and others will be similarly treated 
when the answers to them sent in from the four towns are more or less incomplete or are fur- 
nished by one town and not by another. 


58 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


their founder, who named them, and by whose order or mandate 
he made the settlement; the year of its foundation and the num- 
ber of inhabitants at that and at the present time. 


QUESTION X 


State the situation of said town, if it lies high or low or in a plain, 
and give a plan or colored drawing of the streets, squares and 
other places, the monasteries to be marked, which can be easily 
sketched on paper, as well as can be done. It is to be noted which 
parts of the town face North and South. 


QUESTION XI 


In the case of Indian towns it is only to be stated how far they 
are from the capital, in what district and jurisdiction they lie, 
and which is the nearest centre for the teaching of religious doc- 
trine. The names of all of the chief towns in its jurisdiction are 
to be given as well as those of their respective dependencies. 


QUESTION XII 


State also the distance between the other towns of Indians or 
Spaniards that surround it and the directions in which they lie and 
whether the leagues are long or short and the roads level or straight 
or mountainous and winding. 


TEQUIZISTLAN! 


The distance between the town of Tequizistlan and the City of 
Mexico, where the Royal Audiencia resides, is -of five leagues of 
road, three running from North to South and two from East to 
West. The town lies at the Northeast of the City of Mexico. It 
lies in a low plain, among canals, very close to the lagoon. It is 


1 Sefior Troncoso has drawn attention to the fact that in a document dating from the middle 
of thesixteenth century, the name of this town is given as “‘ Tecciztlan”’ (op. cit., Vol. VI, p. 226 
note). This is confirmed by the use of the great marine conch shell —“ Tecciztli’’— as the hiero- 
glyph to designate the town in the Alonso de Santa Cruz map, although the Spanish rendering 
of the name as ‘‘ Tequizistlan,’’ is written alongside. (See Plate 2, upper left corner.) The native 
informants were evidently aware that the local name was derived from some sort of shell. The 
gratuitous and plausible explanation they volunteered, however, about the name having origi- 
nated from the abundance of small fresh-water shells found in the canals is obviously wrong, 
and may have been inspired by the wish to appear ignorant of the name, even, of the marine 
conch shell that was so intimately associated with the cult of the moon and the water gods in 
their ancient, forbidden and persecuted religion. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 59 


the capital of the district of the Corregidor and is a league distant 
from Acolman, the centre for the teaching of religious doctrine. 
Its dependencies are Totoltzinco and Acaltecoya. It lies to the 
Northeast of the City of Mexico, separated from it by a distance: 
of five leagues of straight and level road running from North to 
South for three leagues and from East to West for two leagues. 
A straight and level road leads to the City of Texcoco which lies 
to the Southeast at a distance of two leagues. These leagues are 
medium ones. 


TEPECHPAN 


The town of Tepechpan is at a distance of five leagues from the 
City of Mexico where the Audiencia and Royal Chancery reside 
and is separated by a level road which runs directly from North to 
South for three leagues and two from East to West. It lies to the 
Northeast of the City of Mexico. The town is situated in a plain 
on the southern slope of a small hill. The plain is open to all sides. 
It has, to the Northwest, a small mountain which shelters it, and 
at the North the hill at whose base it lies protects it also some- 
what. It is exposed towards the East. It belongs to the jurisdic- 
tion of Tequizistlan and is at a distance of a quarter of a league 
from said town and from Acolman where the monks who teach 
the Doctrine reside. Within three quarters of a league are its 
dependencies, Santiago Zaqualuca, San Miguel Atlanmaxac, Santa 
Ana Tlachahualeo, San Francisco Temazcalapa, San Matheo 
Teopancalco, San Pedro Tulamihuacan, San Cristobal Culhuaca- 
zingo, Santa Maria Maquiteco, San Juan Teacalco, San Bartolome 
Atoecpan, San Geronimo Chiapa and Santa Maria Suchitepec. 

The town Tepechpan is at a distance from the City of Mexico 
of five medium leagues by level road, which runs for three leagues 
from North to South and two from East to West. It les North- 
east of the City of Mexico. 

At the Southwest of the town of Tepechpan lies the town of 
Texcoco two long leagues distant by a straight and level road. At 
its South lies the town of Tequizistlan, a quarter of a league distant 
by a straight road and at its North the town of Acolman, its reli- 
gious centre, three quarters of a league distant by a straight, level 
road. Towards the West it has the town and district of Chico- 
nauhtla, two short leagues distant by a straight and level road. 


60 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


ACOLMAN 


The town of Acolman falls under the jurisdiction of the City of 
Mexico where the Royal Audiencia resides, at a distance of five 
long leagues of level road, three and a half of which run almost 
due North to South and a league and a half to the Northeast. At 
its Southwest lies the town of Texcoco at a distance of two and a 
half leagues of straight, level road. It belongs to the jurisdiction 
of the district of Tequizistlan and is the chief seat of religious 
instruction. Its dependencies are San Pedro Tepetitlan, San 
Antonio Huiztonco, San Miguel Jumetla, Santa Maria Tlatecpa, 
Sant Ana Atenpa, San Bartolome Quauhtlapeco, San Juan Chico- 
nauhtecapa, Santiago Atla, Tres Reyes Yzquitlan, San Agustin 
Aticpac, San Martin Tonala, San Niculas Tenextlacotla, Santa 
Maria Ostonocazeca, San Matheo Tezcacohuac, Santo Tomas 
Atlauhco, San Marcos Quauhyoca, San Felipe Sacatepec, San 
Martin Huiznahuac, Santa Maria Atenpa, San Juan Tlaxicaya, 
Santiago Nopaltepec, San Matheo Tochatlauco, San Lucas Tla- 
mazingo, Santa Maria Saquala, Santa Maria Chiapan, San Juan 
Tepehuizco and San Juan Atlatonco. 

To its South it has the town of Tepechpan, three quarters of .a 
league distant; to the North-northeast the town of San Juan 
Teotihuacan, one league distant; to the Southwest the town of 
Texcoco, nearly two and a half leagues distant; to the West the 
town and district of Chiconauhtla, a long league and a half distant. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The town of San Juan Teotihuacan lies to the Northeast, of the 
City of Mexico where the Royal Audiencia resides, at a distance of 
six long leagues of level country. The said town of San Juan is 
separated from the city of Texcoco by three long leagues of 
straight road and level country. Its distance from Acolman is one 
league; from Tequizistlan two leagues both lying almost directly 
South. Tequizistlan is the capital of the Corregimiento. 

Its subordinate towns are: San Lorenzo Atezcapa, San Miguel 
Tldtezcac, San Matheo Tenango, San Sebastian Chimalpan, Santa 
Maria Aguatlan, San Francisco Magatlan, San Pedro Tlaguican, 
San Martin Teacal, Santiago Tolman, San Andres Oztolpachun- 
can (szc), Los Reyes Aticpac, San Antonio Tlajomulco, San Agustin 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 61 


Ohuayucan, San Pedro Ocotitlan, San Miguel Tlalguac, San Luis 
Xiuhquemeccan, San Juan Evangelista Tlaylotlacan. Its distance 
from Otumba is two leagues to the Northeast by a straight road. 
The town of Tepetlauztuc lies to the Southwest at a distance of 
two and a half leagues of level ground. 


QUESTION XIII 


State what the name of the Indian town means; why it was so 
named; what there is to know about it and what its name is in the 
language which the native inhabitants actually speak. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


Tequizistlan means “‘ place where shells abound ”’ and, accord- 
ing to the natives, it is so called because there are many shells in 
the canals of said town. The sole language they speak is the 


Nahuatl. 
‘TEPECHPAN ! 


Tepechpan in the Indian language means ‘‘a town set on a large 
rock” and is named thus because it was founded near a rocky hill. 
The language spoken by the natives of the chief town and its de- 
pendencies is the Nahuatl, with the exception that some few of 
them speak Otomi. . 


ACOLMAN 2 


Acolman in the Nahuatl language means “shoulder and arm.” 
‘The Indians could give no reason why it was thus named. The 
language they generally speak is the Nahuatl; a few speak Otomi. 


1 “ Tepexitl’’ —a large rock; ‘‘Pan’’— upon. In the original document the name of this 
town is written ‘‘ Tepexpan ’’ — a spelling ‘that is more correct than ‘‘ Tepechpan,’’ now in use. 

2 The name of the town of Acolman, expressed by a rebus consisting of a shoulder and arm 
combined with the sign for water, is an interesting specimen of the native picture writing. The 
shoulder — ‘‘ Acolli’’ — conveys the first two syllables of the name and the sign for water — 
‘** Atl”? — serves as a determinative by duplicating the vowel ‘‘a.’’ The hand — ‘ Maitl’? — 
furnishes the syllable ‘“‘ma,”’ and thus ‘‘ Acol-ma”’ was conveyed, this being the ancient name, 
as can be seen in the Plan (Plate 1) where it is spelt ‘‘ Aculma,” the u and o being interchange- 
able in the Nahuatl tongue. The fact that the same hieroglyph served also to express the tribal 
name “‘ Acolhua”’ and the name of the province “Acolhuacan’’ is revealed by its use in combina- 
tion with the sign for Texcoco in the Codex Mendoza, the Codex Osuna, and in the arms of the 
town conferred upon it by Philip IT. 

This combination was probably assumed after the Conquest of Acolman, the ancient metrop- 
olis of Acolhuacan, by Nezahualcoyotl, when Texcoco became the capital of the province, and 
the name Acolhuacan was applied to the whole territory subjected to the Texcocan rulers. 

In the famous map of Alonso de Santa Cruz, the familiar rebus consisting of an arm and 
water designates the town of Acolman (see centre of Plate 2 and compare with Fig. 2, from 


62 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


TEOTIHUACAN 


In the language of the Indians the name of the town of San 
Juan is Teotihuacan, meaning ‘‘temple of gods,’ because in this 
town there was the oracle where the Indians of Mexico and those 
of all other surrounding towns idolatrized.! 


QUESTION XIV 


State to whom the Indians belonged in heathen times and what 
dominion was exercised over them by their lords; what tribute 
they paid and the form of worship, rites and customs they had, 
good or bad.? 


Codex Mexicanus, Collection Goupil-Aubin Planche, 24, op. cit.) the name of which is, however, 
. not written also in Spanish characters as in the case of the majority of other places. It was 
probably for this reason, and for the misleading error of the map-maker, who wrote the name 
““Tequizistlan’’ close by (in the wrong place and for the second time) that it was overlooked by 
Sefior Arreola in the recent Mexican government publication already cited. On page 370 of 
Tomo I, Volume IT, he actually affirms: ‘‘ Alonso de Santa Cruz does not even register the town 
of Acclman.’”’ (‘‘Alonso de Santa Cruz no registro siquiera el pueblo de Acolman.’’) 

It is interesting to note that in 1697 Gemelli Carreri wrote that he had visited ‘the town of 
Acolman or Aculma,’’ which shows that both pronunciations were still in use at that time. 

The fact that, in the Codex Mendoza, the identical sign composed by an arm and water is 
used to designate the town of ‘‘ Coliman’’ — Colima — is interpreted by Orozco y Berra and 
Pefiafiel, in Nombres Geogrdficos, as implying that this locality, near the Pacific Coast, was con- 
quered by the Acolhuas. They were evidently not aware that Ixtlilxochitl, the native historian 
whose statements are of great weight, having been approved of by the six most learned and 
aged caciques of his time, relates that the Acolhuas ‘‘ were from beyond the provinces of Mich- 
oacan,’’ and that in the year One Flint (1063 a.p.) three Acolhua lords, whose names he gives, 
““accompanied by many vassals, among them the nation of Otomis, having heard of the 
greatness of Xolotl, the Chichimec lord and leader, of his having seized all the country and 
that he was colonizing it, came to offer him obedience and ask him for lands where they could 
colonize. He was much pleased to see them, for they were a civil people, well governed, and 
giving them lands fer colonizing, he also gave two of them daughters of his in marriage; to the 
principal lord named Acolhua he gave his oldest daughter, and the town of Atzcapotzalco as 
the capital of his state, with more lands and provinces for his vassals; to the second, with a 
daughter, the town of Xaltocan (on an island in the lake of Xaltocan); and to the third ‘ Acol- 
huatitlan Acolhuacan.’ In this way he obliged them, telling them that they only needed to 
recognize him as their lord and sovereign, and need not pay him any tribute whatsoever.” (See 
Obras Historicas de . . . Ixtlilxochitl, ed. Chavero, Mexico, 1891, Tomo I, p. 94, also p. 268 
and Tomo II, p. 40.) Archaeological evidence, obtained in recent years, strikingly confirms the 
truth of the above history, for a remarkable similarity exists between the type of the clay figu- 
rines I and several fellow-archaeologists have found near Atzcapotzalco (in my case at a depth 
of 16 feet under a gravel-bed) and those unearthed in the present states of Michoacan and Col- 
ima. Both are characterized by thesame type of long, narrow faces and square brows, etc., the 
clay being, in both cases, of a fine, light-colored variety. 

1 Without entering here into what would be a fruitless discussion of the many different 
etymologies of the name that have been published from time to time, the newest being contained 
in the recent publication of the Mexican Government, attention is drawn to the interesting ex- 
planation given here that Teotihuacan owed its name and designation as a ‘‘temple of gods” 
to a famous oracle that was there. Further mention of this oracle will be found in the answer to 
Question XIV. 

2 Attention is drawn here to the curious fact that in the following answers from the town 
of Tequizistlan it is stated that ‘‘they adored the idol Huitzilopochtli”; in the answer from 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 63 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


In ancient times the Indians came from Chicomoztoc in the land 
of the Chichimecs and peopled the town of Tequizistlan and the 
other districts. They had as their lord Izcuin, who wore a cloak 
of coarse agave fibre, a loin cloth and sandals. Every day they 
contributed some rabbits and snakes for his sustenance and he had 
Indian servants who guarded and served in his house. He did not 
eat fowl. Besides the above they gave him skirts and shoulder 
capes of coarse agave fibre. He did not use cotton; nor did the 
natives take him aught beyond what has been stated. They 
adored the idol Huitzilopochtli and every eighty days they sacri- 
freed thereto the Indians who were condemned to death for crimes 
they had committed. They lived and were condemned to pun- 
ishments according to the law of Nature. 


TEPECHPAN 


The Indians affirm that in heathen times they formed an in- 
dependent republic. They paid no tribute to their lords but only 
acknowledged them as such by giving them daily, hares, rabbits, 
snakes, quail and domestic fowl. They were Chichimecs until 
some years later a cacique of somewhat greater culture, named 
Axoquauhtzin, became their ruler. To him they contributed, 
every eighty days, four loads of coarse agave-fibre cloths, each 
load containing twenty cloths and eighty sandals; also four loads 
of the finer cloths made of agave fibre called ‘‘ayates.’’ Later on, 
fifty years previous to the reign of Montezuma, lord of Mexico, the 
lordship of Tepechpan was held by Tencuyotzin, to whom the 
natives of said town began to yield tribute. Every eighty days 
they brought him fifty cotton cloths four legs (piernas) wide and 
eight arm-lengths long; and also thirty other cotton cloths four 
arm-lengths long and four legs wide; also forty other cloths for 
wearing worked with rabbits’ wool and twenty loads of cocoa from 
Soconozco, each load containing twenty-four thousand cocoa 
beans; also forty skirts and as many shoulder capes (for women); _ 
twenty loads of chili peppers and as many of seeds. 

Tepechpan, that ‘‘they had no idols and worshipped the Sun daily’’; in the answer from Acol- 
man, that ‘‘they adored Tezcatlipoca’’; and in that from Teotihuacan, that ‘‘their principal 
idol was Huitzilopochtli,’’ but that ‘‘for greater veneration, this had been placed on the hill 


of Chapultepec,” a statement that may have been made for the purpose of warding off any 
search for this idol being made at Teotihuacan. 


64 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


They had no idols and worshipped the sun, offering it daily, 
snakes, butterflies and some game birds. The man who first 
found any kind of the above creatures, at whatever hour of the 
day it might be, cut off its head and, turning towards the sun, 
offered it so that the sun should protect him that day. They had 
no other rite or custom and occupied themselves with hunting. 


ACOLMAN 


In ancient times, when they were heathens, the natives of Acol- 
man, those of Coatlinchan in the district of Texcoco, and those of 
Atzcapotzalco named Tepanecs, knew no alien lord and only ren- 
dered obedience to their native lords until about twenty years, more 
or less, before the Marques del Valle arrived 
and conquered New Spain, one Nezahualco- 
yotzin, lord of Texcoco, allied himself with 
Montezuma, lord of Mexico, and tyrannized 
over the whole region. Afterwards the natives 
of the town began to render tribute to the lord 
of Texcoco, but only to the extent of furnish- 
ing him with fighting men in war time. To 
their native lords they had formerly paid, as 
tribute, a load of coarse agave-fibre cloths, twenty in a load and 
another load of thin agave-fibre cloths; a load of women’s shoulder 
capes of thin agave fibre; a load of petticoats of the same and 
some fowl (they did not know how many). Every day they con- 
tributed a load of dried agave leaves to be used for fuel, and an- 
other load of the wood of the wild cherry tree. Their lord had, 
in his house, Indians who guarded and served him. They adored 
Tezcatlipoca. 

When they returned from warfare and brought some prisoners 
they assembled by order of the lord and held a festival, taking those 
who were to be sacrificed to a great temple which is in the said 
town. They were decked with rich cloths, carried flowers in their 
hands and danced. until they reached the summit of the pyra- 
mid temple where they tamely submitted to being stripped and 
thrown backwards on a large stone on the edge of which they were 
stretched, their head and legs hanging and their breast taut. A 





FiGcure 2 


PLACE-NAME OF ACOLMAN 


1 Instead of ‘‘twenty years, more or less,”’ read ‘‘ninety years,” the final Conquest of Acolman 
and Teotihuacan and adjacent country by Nezahualcoyotl and his cousin Montezuma the Elder 
having taken place in 1429. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 65 


cut was made across the body below the ribs with a flint knife and 
the heart was torn out. This was carried in a painted gourd bowl 
to the idol and was cast before it. Old men were specially ap- 
pointed for this office and they took the dead body and placed it 
in a bath. After it was well washed with hot water they cooked 
and ate it, dividing it between the chieftains and captains. They 
lived according to the law of Nature. | 

The Indians who distinguished themselves in warfare, took 
prisoners and killed enemies, were authorized to wear on their 
heads in peace times as a mark of distinction, white feathers 
stuck on with paste. In the month of March they celebrated 
a feast which they named Tlacaxipehualiztli which means ‘‘the 
flaying of a person.”’ It was ordered that during twenty days 
the slaves who were to be sacrificed danced every day, singing sad 
songs, carrying certain shields and flowers in their hands and wear- 
ing a kind of wide shirt sewn together at the sides and named 
“‘xicalco.”’ 

When, at the end of the twenty days, they were to be sacrificed 
they were taken to the summit of the pyramid temple where the 
idol was. After the heart had been torn out and offered to the 
idol, the corpse was thrown to the base of the pyramid and beaten 
with rods until the skin became raised.!. Then they flayed it and 
an Indian clothed himself with it and ran about the neighboring 
towns showing himself and begging for alms. He was given maize 
and huauhtl: and other things, all of which was given to the owner 
of the sacrificed slave who, twenty days after the sacrifice, took 
the flayed skin and buried it publicly in the temple of the idol. 
Inviting all the lords on the day of the burial, they consumed all 
the edibles which had been collected as alms. On the day when 
the slave was sacrificed the lords arrayed themselves and danced 
all day long and partook of the flesh of the victim. On the day 
when the skin was buried they beat a drum in the temple of the 
idol, at the sound of which all Indians who were working in their 
fields ran and shut themselves up in their houses. For the Indian 
who had worn the skin ran all over the country and if he found 
anyone working in the fields he shaved the top of his head and 
thus made him a slave. If he found no living soul, instead of. hair 

1 According to Sefior Troncoso y Paso, this method of treating the skin before flaying the 


body was also used by the Indians of Teutitlan. It was probably the method generally em- 
ployed in the gruesome rite. 


66 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


he had to cut agave leaves to bring back to the temple. They ob- 
served the custom of burning incense every twenty days in a cir- 
cular building nearly two yards high. The vassals daily burnt in- 
cense in their homes. 

The festivals they observed every twenty days had different 
names. One of them was named Suchimanaloya, which means 
‘“‘the gathering of flowers,” ! it being the custom to gather, on that 
day, many flowers in the hills and plains and to place them where 
they burned incense without any further rite or ceremony. An- 
other festival was named Hueytozoztli, its ritual being that, three 
days previously, they gathered some of the earliest maize shoots 
and tied them in bunches with bean-blossoms. On the feast day 
they carried these to the house of the owner of the field in which 
they had been gathered and laid them on a clean mat. In front 
of said bunches they placed as an offering, a small basketful of 
pinole which is made of roasted and ground maize, and a basket of 
tamales and on the top of the basket a cooked frog ? with its limbs 
stretched out. It was their intention thereby to appease their 
idol so that it would give them a good harvest. When the said 
feast day had passed the owner of the field in which said maize 
shoots had been gathered, ate the offerings. They had another 
festival named Toxcatl, the ceremonial of which was to take 
maize from the fields and roast it and when it popped and burst 
to string the pop-corn for necklaces and chaplets which they wore 
on their necks and heads. ‘The old people danced, rejoicing at the 
good year conceded to them. 

Another festival was named Etzalqualiztli and its ritual was 
that. they took maize, beans, huauhlli, and all kinds of seeds they 
cultivated and made tamales of them all mixed together. Small 
groups consisting of five, six or ten persons went dancing through 
the streets and into houses and the palaces of the lords where they 
offered each other the aforesaid tamales as a sign of festivity and 
rejoicing. 

They had five other festivals named Tecuilhuitontli, Hueytecuil- 
huitl, Miccailhuitl, Hueymiccailhuitl and Ochpaniztli in which 


1 This seems to have been a local name for the festival that is usually named ‘‘ Tozoztli’’ — 
the feast that followed it being designated as ‘‘ Huei-tozoztli’’ or ‘‘ the great Tozoztli.”’ 

2 The frog was the emblem of the goddess of water, and she was worshipped under this form. 
An “extremely beautiful Temple of the Frog, the goddess of Water’ is mentioned by Ixtlilxo- 
chitl (Obras Histéricas . . . ed. Chavero, Mexico 1891, Tomo I, p. 37) as having been built by 
the Toltecs in the ninth century of the Christian era by Mitl. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 67 


the only ceremony observed was the burning of incense in front 
of the idol. They had another festival named Tepeilhuitl which 
means ‘‘the feast of the mountains,” the ritual of which was that 
whenever an Indian, on going to fetch fuel, found any piece of 
wood or branch which was crooked or twisted, he brought it to 
his house and when this festival arrived, covered it with the dough 
named tzoalli, placed it on a clean rush mat, and when the festival 
was over, ate the dough. They had another festival named Que- 
cholli, the ritual of which was to take dry canes and make arrows 
of them, decorating them with feathers. Early in the morning of 
this day all the common people assembled arrayed for warfare 
and went hunting. They then danced with the produce of their 
hunt such as rabbits, rats or snakes, and ate them with tamales 
made of maize and the sweet juice of the agave. 

They had another festival named Panquetzaliztli, in which the 
boys of the town aged ten years or less, wearing rich mantles, 
danced in honor of the idol in the temple square. During the 
other two festivals named Atemoztli and Tititl, the sole ceremonial 
was the burning of incense before the idol. 

Another festival was named Izcalli and its ritual was that after 
midnight they took their children and holding their heads between 
the palms of their hands lifted them repeatedly so that they should 
grow rapidly. At the same time they also feasted and drank. 

In another festival, named Quahuitlecua, their ritual was that 
the chieftain took many folded sheets of paper and joining them 
together made [something] like a lance. He then went to the top 
of some hill where they had their idols, followed by all the common 
people and there they offered the papers and burnt incense and 
covered the idols with cotton mantles, leaving them there until 
time destroyed them. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


In heathen times its people constituted a republic which recog- 
nized no authority but that of its natural lords who were [of the 
race] named Chichimecas, until Netzahualcoyotzin, lord of Tex- 
coco, made war and tyrannized over the whole territory, killing 
sons of Tetzotzomoctzin, lord of Atzcapotzalco, to whom all ren- 
dered allegiance. After the death of Tetzotzomoctzin the said 
Netzahualcoyotzin made himself powerful by making an alliance 


68 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


with Montezuma, lord of Mexico. They divided between them- 
selves the lands of the towns of Teotihuacan and Acolman. The 
inhabitants of Teotihuacan, in recognition of their overlordship, 
paid them as tribute, every eight days, some blankets made of 
coarse agave fibre, named zchtzlmates, and some loads of agave 
leaves, named metlonilt. 

Their principal idol was Huitzilopochtli which for greater vener- 
ation was placed on the hill of Chapultepec in the City of Mexico. 
Aside from this there were other minor idols'in the town of San 
Juan which was the temple and oracle to which the inhabitants of 
all neighboring towns flocked. 

In the said town there was a very high pyramid temple which 
had [stairs with] three landing places [terraces] by means of which 
one ascended to the summit.!. On its summit was a stone idol they 
named Tonacatecuhlli, made of a very hard, rough stone all of one 
piece. It was eighteen feet long, six feet wide and six feet thick, 
and faced the West.? 

In the level space in front of said temple, there was another small 
one, eighteen feet high, on which was an idol smaller than the 
first, named Micttlantecuhtli, which means Lord of the Under- 
world. This faced the first and was seated on a large stone six feet 
square. A little farther to the North was another [pyramid] 
temple slightly smaller than the first, which was called ‘‘the Hill 
of the Moon,” on the top of which was another great idol nearly 
eighteen feet high which they named the Moon. Surrounding 
this [pyramid] temple were many others, in the largest of which 
were six other idols called ‘‘the Brethren of the Moon,” to all of 
which the priests of Montezuma, the lord of Mexico, with the 
said Montezuma came to offer sacrifices, every twenty days.° 


1 This positive statement that the pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan consisted of three 
stages is confirmed by therepresentations of both pyramids in the accompanying Map (Plate 1) 
and in that made by the famous cosmographer Alonso de Santa Cruz (see Plate 2, lower right- 
hand side). 

2 The stone idol described here is the ‘‘image of the Sun’? mentioned by Gemelli Carreri 
who in 1697 was shown a fragment of it that had been thrown from the summit of the pyramid 
of the Sun and had, on account of its great size, stayed half way down. Ixtlilxochitl, the native 
historian, who resided at Teotihuacan, states that Tonacatecuhlli signified ‘‘God of Sustenance”’ 
(‘‘ Tonacayotl’?—human sustenance or the fruits of the earth, and ‘*‘ Tecuhlli’’—lord) and 
that this was one of the principal gods, in the figure of the sun, the other being his wife, in the 
figure of the moon. (Obras Histéricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, ed. Chavero, 
Mexico 1891, Tomo I, p. 39.) 

3 This statement that Montezuma and his priests came to Teotihuacan every twenty days 
is of extreme importance and interest, for it reveals that this ancient Toltec capital continued 
to be a great religious centre down to the time of the Spanish Conquest. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 69 


During the entire year they observed eighteen festivals, or one 
festival every period of twenty days. Each festival had its differ- 
ent ceremonials as is set forth in paragraph fourteen of the descrip- 
tion of Acolman to which I refer. 

Every four-year period closed with a feast on the number twenty 
but in the bissextile year there were five days in excess and they 
then held a feast in a large square that was situated between the 
two pyramids. In the centre of this square there was a small plat- 
form about twelve feet high on which they punished evil-doers and 
delinquents. 3 


QUESTION XV 


State how they were governed; with whom they carried on war- 
fare; how they fought; the clothes and costume they wore and 
now wear and whether they used to be more or less healthy than 
now and the reason that is known for this.! 


1 Tt is an interesting and instructive fact that, in reports from a number of towns, situated 
in different parts of Mexico, the answers to Questions V and XV unanimously and invariably 
relate that previous to the Conquest the natives enjoyed bettcr health and longer lives and 
that the physical deterioration since then was due to the living in towns, the use of more cloth- 
ing, a greater license and independence, and the indulgence in a meat diet and pulque. The 
following reports from towns pertaining to the diocese of Oaxaca, corroborate these and are 
particularly explicit and illuminating: 

“The oldest inhabitants state that the reason why the natives are more shortlived nowadays 
than in heathen times is because anciently they did not sleep in towns or settlements; and ate 
naught but dry tortillas made with great labor and care.: Thus they lived strong and healthy 
and when they married they were at least over thirty years of age and thus led healthy lives. 
After the Spaniards came they built houses and lived in peace and tranquillity; ate an abun- 
dance of different foods; wore clothes and indulged themselves. The boys marry at twelve 
and fifteen, and all these things, as it is reasonable to suppose, cause them to be more short- 
lived nowadays.’ (Town of Chichicapa.) 

‘* . . . In olden times the natives lived a hundred years or more and now they die young 
and what they say and explain and communicate to each other on the subject is that the reason 
for this is that anciently the children were put to work at the age of six or seven. As there 
were so many wars there was no time to cultivate much and so they ate little, slept in the open 
and were fitted to live in constant labor. After the Spaniards came they wore clothes, slept 
in houses, ate and drank and indulged themselves much. In those days an Indian married at 
forty and now at twelve or fifteen. . ...”’ (Town of Ocelotepec.) 

“|, . They used to fight with the natives of other neighboring towns for no cause or reason 
whatsoever, only for the exercise and they ate the flesh of those they captured alive in battle, 
and not that of those killed in warfare. ... They ate tortillas or tamales and some chile and 
no more. Once a year when they celebrated their harvest, they killed a hen, chicken, dog or 
rabbit (if able to catch it) or other game and ate it, offering first of all to their idol the first 
fruits of all they caught or killed — for in all things they were subjected to strict laws. ... 
They say that notwithstanding the hard work they used to suffer under, they used to be health- 
ier . . . they say an Indian used to live more than a hundred and twenty years and now it is 
a great deal if the age of eighty is reached, although the natives now lead such an easy life and 
are the masters of their properties which formerly they were not, for no one then dared eat any- 
thing they raised under pain of fine or death.” (Town of Iztepexi.) 

“|, . Their ordinary food used to be tortillas and chile and beans and if anyone hunted a 
deer, rabbit or mouse they ate it although usually they presented it to their native lord who 


70 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


The natives of this place had no government. All they under- 
stood was to hunt and to cultivate very little land. They had 
never been at war or quarrelled with anyone until Nezahualcoyot- 
zin, the lord of Texcoco, conquered the district and allied himself 
with Montezuma, lord of Mexico. They made vassals of the 
. natives of this town and distributed among their sons the lands 
they owned. They fought with bows and arrows, and clubs gar- 
nished with obsidian points. They had shields made of hard cane. 
Their war costume was of the skin of rabbits and other animals 
and feathers of birds, and in time of peace they went naked and 
only used coarse mantles of agave fibre and loin cloths. The chiefs 
wore sandals. Nowadays all in general wear cotton mantles, 
shirts and trousers and the women cotton shirts and shoulder 
capes. Some use woollen mantles. They sleep high and cover 
themselves with woollen blankets. 

In ancient times their food consisted of snakes, cactus and cooked 
agave leaves and some herbs of little nourishment with which they 
lived heathily. Nowadays they are accustomed to eat game birds 
and domestic fowl, baked bread, also other products of the lagoon, 
with which they are not as healthy as in olden times because they 
have more luxury now than they had then. 


TEPECHPAN 


According to what the natives say, they governed themselves 
according to the law of Nature. For many years they lived in 
peace, without being at war with anyone until, two hundred years 
before the time of Montezuma, they had some encounters with 
the lords of Mexico who wanted to subjugate them, whereas they 


would give them some of it or some other food or clothing as a compensation, because only the 
lords had permission to eat turkeys, quail, deer and other game. Nowadays everybody eats 
tortillas, chile, beans, gourds and deer although they cost excessive prices, also other meats of 
our cattle or of the game they kill. . . .””. (Town of Tepeucila.) 

“They use at present the same foods they used to but have many meats, as they eat sheep, 
ewes and cows, there being no town which does not have its community ranch and private ones, 
thus having meat in abundance. ... As the reason why, in ancient times, they lived much 
longer, all dying old then and young nowadays, they say it must be because they work less now 
than they used to, having then to render personal service not only to the caciques and lords 
but also to the ‘ Tequitlatos’ who were those who were in charge. Alsc because nowadays they 
marry in boyhood, whereas formerly they did so at the age of thirty or forty. . . .’”’ (Town of 
Miahuatlan.) 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 71 


defended themselves so as not to receive their evil customs. They 

became confederates by means of a marriage. A hundred and 
twenty years later a lord of Atzcapotzalco near Mexico, named 
Maxtlaton, with despotism killed Tencoyotzin, lord of Tepechpan, 
in order to increase his dominion, for which reason they waged 
war against Atzcapotzalco and joined the Mexicans and made war 
on those of Soconusco and Tlaxcala and Huejotzinco and the 
province of Michoacan. 

The chieftains wore a loin cloth named maztli, no shirt, and man- 
tles worked with designs, also bracelets and labrets of stones 
named chalchthwtes. Ordinary men went naked with a loin cloth 
only and a mantle of agave fibre. Nowadays they generally wear 
cotton mantles, shirts and loose trousers; only a few wear loin 
cloths. The commonest foods they have always used and still use 
are maize, beans, squashes, huauhtlz and chili peppers. 

After the arrival of the Marques del Valle they ate fowl. The 
natives state that before he came they had never had any remark- 
able illness but that about a year before his arrival, a great num- 
ber of them died of a disease like small-pox which broke out all 
over their bodies. Since then they have never been free from ill- 
ness, they do not know why. 


ACOLMAN 


The lord of Acolman used to govern his Indians and punished 
those who committed crimes. If any chieftain committed a crime 
this was investigated by the lord of 'Texcoco. | 

The people of Acolman carried on war with those of Tlaxcalla 
and the mountain range of Metztitlan, and fought them with bows 
and arrows, wooden sabres with obsidian points, and wore cotton 
mantles. In time of peace the chieftains always wore fine loin 
clothes, mantles of agave fibre, and sandals, excepting at festivals 
when they wore mantles worked with designs. When they went 
out, in order to protect themselves from the sun, each carried a 
feather fan. All vassals wore only a mantle of coarse agave fibre 
and a loin cloth. Nowadays all generally wear cotton shirts and 
mantles and trousers; they cover themselves at night with blankets, 
whereas in ancient times they only covered themselves with the 
mantle they wore in day time. The chieftains used to eat game 
birds and some domestic fowl. The commoners only ate the cooked 


(2 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


leaves of the cactus or agave and other wild herbs. Nowadays all 
generally eat maize bread and chicken and beef or mutton. 

Previous to the Conquest, in olden times, they were very healthy 
but nowadays they suffer from disease and do not live as long. 
The natives believe that it is on account of the little work and 
much feasting that they now have. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


They governed by means of some laws they had, in accordance 
with which they punished malefactors. One of these laws decreed 
that those who committed adultery and were found in delicto 
fragranti, were handed over to the relatives of the offended party 
and were beaten to death publicly within two days. If by chance 
the offended one forgave the crime the pair were not punished be- 
yond the fact that the wife was separated from her husband. If 
the latter returned to her he incurred penalty of death for he was 
regarded as having consented to the adultery committed. This 
law only applied to the wife who had been received by the husband 
after negotiations with her relatives followed by the celebration of 
a wedding, during which the bride and groom were anointed with 
a yellow pitch or wax named jahualt. The woman who had re- 
ceived a man without this ceremony was a concubine and not a 
wife and even if she committed adultery she was not punished. 

The person who stole ears of corn, squashes or beans, even 
though he were a child, was condemned to pay for each stolen ear 
or squash, a woollen blanket named quachtli. If he had no means of 
paying he incurred the penalty of death and his head was publicly 
pelted with stones as a warning to others. Adults who stole cloth- 
ing, feathers, stones or other articles of value incurred the death 
penalty if the stolen goods were not restituted. In the latter case 
the thief became a life-long slave. When an Indian man and wo- 
man, married according to the customary ceremonies, happened 
not to treat each other well and often quarrelled, the chieftain or 
elder of the quarter in which they lived, summoned them and in- 
quired what was the reason of their disagreement. If, being a 
regular wife, she complained that her husband did not provide her 
with necessaries, or that, instead of supporting himself by working 
in his corn-fields or farm he amused himself, this constituted a 
cause for separation, as was also the case when the wife was lazy 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 73 


and did not serve her husband. An equal division of property was 
made when a separation took place. 

The slave who escaped from his prison and made a public decla- 
ration that he had done so before the elder of his quarter, was ac- 
quitted of his imprisonment and set free by said elder. If war 
-captives, while being led to the temple to be sacrificed to the idol, 
were by chance able to escape and reach the summit of the pyramid 
where the idol was, and get behind this, he was acquitted of said 
death and sacrifice. . 

The inhabitants of Teotihuacan used to carry on warfare with 
the people of Huejotzinco and Atlixco and used to fight with bows, 
arrows and wooden sabres edged with sharp obsidian points (ma- 
cana). The usual costume of the chieftains in time of peace con- 
sisted of a mantle of fine agave fibre, a loin cloth and sandals. In 
war time the chieftains and others who had distinguished them- 
selves in warfare wore a cotton armor and various devices; some 
disguised themselves as herons, or ducks, or eagles. Others dis- 
guised themselves by wearing the skins of pumas, jaguars, wolves 
(coyotes), deer or other animals. The common Indians only car- 
ried bows and arrows and wore no device whatsoever. They went 
naked excepting for a loin cloth and coarse mantle of agave fibre. 
Nowadays they all wear cloaks, cotton shirts and trousers; they 
sleep on beds and cover themselves with woolen blankets. They 
eat good food, boiled maize, domestic and wild fowl, beef and 
mutton. 

In ancient times most of them sustained life on the boiled leaves 
of the cactus and agave, or roots, or mice, snakes and other reptiles, 
and were healthier because of this and because they were more 
accustomed to exercise and hard work than nowadays. ‘The 
natives realize that the luxury they now live in and the little work 
they do is the cause of illness, because they now fall ill whenever 
they make any exertion, especially on account of the pulque which 
they are accustomed to drink from childhood and which does them 
much harm. 

QUESTION XVI 


It is to be stated, about all towns of Spaniards or Indians, 
whether it is situated in a mountain, valley or open plain, and the 
name of the mountain or valley. The district is to be recorded with 
the meaning of everything in the native tongue. 


74 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


This town is situated in a plain, among canals and close to the 
lagoon. Towards the North it is open on all sides but there is a 
small mountain there. which is named Tlahuilquitl because the 
natives say that in ancient times they saw fire come out of said 
mountain and that it illuminated a great part of the country; 
therefore they call it the ‘‘mountain of light.’”’?! To the Northwest 
there is another large mountain within its boundaries. It is named 
Yelocotl because it has plentiful game, so the Viceroys of this New 
Spain have used it as a hunting ground. 


TEPECHPAN 


The town is situated in a plain at the base of a rough hill and is 
open to all sides. Near it, at a distance of a quarter of a league, in 
the confines of Texcoco, there is a medium-sized, round hill which 
is named Tlahuilquitl, thus named because the natives say that in 
said hill there used to be fire which gave light at night; therefore 
they named it ‘‘the mountain of light.” 


AcoLMAN 


Acolman is situated at the foot of a hill, in a plain open to all 
sides. At a distance of about half a league there is a mountain 
named Tlahuilquit! and another big mountain named Yelocotl. 
The meaning of these names is given in the descriptions of Tequi- 
zistlan and 'Tepechpan. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


This town is situated in a vast plain wherein there are many 
springs, as has been declared above. 


QUESTION XVII 


State whether the town is situated in a healthful or unhealthful 
place and if unhealthful the cause for this, also the kinds of illnesses 
that are prevalent and the remedies employed for curing them. 


1 It is interesting and important to learn that, within the memory of man, a small volcano 
in this vicinity was still active. Compare with the evidence presented in note 1, p. 53, tending 
to prove that the name “‘ Tenan” was given to the large volcano in the same region while it 
was periodically active. The name ‘“‘ Yelocotl’’ may be derived from ‘‘ Yeloa”” = a crowded 
place, or “‘ Yeltia’’ =to flee or cause to flee. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 73 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


The situation of this town is unhealthful on account of being very 
damp. Its inhabitants suffer from fever and cure themselves with 
nettles and a kind of lily, which afford them some relief. 


TEPECHPAN 


The situation is healthful. The usual illness is fever which pro- 
ceeds from their working in their seed lands. They cure themselves 
with cooling things. Those that are to die only live eight days. 


ACOLMAN 


It is a place of medium healthfulness and has bad night dews. 
The prevalent illness among the Indians is headache which they 
cure with cooling herbs. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


It is a healthful region although the natives sometimes suffer 
from headache and fever, which maladies they cure with herbs and 
roots of cooling qualities. 


QUESTION XVIII? 


How far or near is any remarkable mountain or mountain range; 
in what direction does it lie and how is it called? 


QUESTION XIX 


State what principal river or rivers pass close to the town; at 
what distance they do so; how abundant they are and whether 
there is anything remarkable about their sources, their water, its 
water-supply and the land it irrigates, also whether it is employed 
or could be employed for irrigation on an important scale. 


QUESTION XX 


Cite the remarkable lakes, lagoons and fountains and any notable 
things there may be in the district of the towns. 


1 As the answers to Questions X VIII to X XI, and from XXIII to X XVII, are either omitted 
or scant, these questions are grouped together. 

In the case of Question XXXII and others to which no answers are given, the questions 
are printed as being interesting in themselves and completing the questionnaire. 


76 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


QUESTION XXI 


Mention the volcanoes, caves and all other remarkable and ad- 
mirable works of nature there may be in the district, which are 
worthy of being known. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


At the East of this town the river named San Juan passes in a 
deep canal at a distance of two arquebuss shots and it irrigates 
nearly half a league. 


TEPECHPAN 


To the East of the town at a distance of half a long league, at the 
confines of Texcoco, is a range of mountains, the names of which 
are not given as they are not. very noteworthy. There is no river 
or fountain, only the river of San Juan passes through the town, 
dividing into two canals which irrigate the land of said town for a 
distance of half a league. 


ACOLMAN 


The river named San Juan passes through the town of Acolman, 
dividing into four canals, each conveying the measure of two oxen 
of water and irrigating nearly a league of land. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


Towards the North lies a big mountain which the natives name 
Tenan and it has given birth to many other mountains. On the 
eastern slope of the aforesaid mountain, about half way up, is a 
chasm in which one hears a great noise which appears to proceed 
from the interior, at a distance of twenty yards. This seems to be 
the noise of the water which descends from the said mountain. 
The natives are convinced that it is water, because in the whole 
plain that extends between the town of San Juan and the confines 
of Texcoco there is no river nor spring other than the one at the 
head of the town of San Juan which the natives associate with the 
water which makes a noise in the mountain. 

In said plain, for a circumference of a league, between the head 
of the town of San Juan and Otumba, there are many large and 
small caves, some as extensive underground as an arquebus shot.. 
From these they extract the saltpeter with which gun powder is 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 77 


made in His Majesty’s Munition House in the City of Mexico. 
Thirty Indians are usually employed every week in extracting said 
saltpeter and the train of mules which conveys it to the City of 
Mexico is famous. 


QUESTION XXII 


Describe the native trees that commonly grow wild in said dis- 
trict, and the profit gained from their fruits and wood. State 
what they are or might be good for. 


QUESTION XXIII 


Mention whether the cultivated trees and fruit trees in the 
district brought there from Spain or elsewhere do well or not. 


QUESTION XXIV 


Mention the grain and seeds and other plants and vegetables 
which have served or serve as food for the natives. 


QUESTION XXV 


State what plants have been introduced there from Spain and 
whether wheat, barley, wine and the olive flourish; in what quantity 
they are harvested and whether there are silk-worms or cochineal 
in the district and in what quantities. 


QUESTION XXVI 


Mention the herbs or aromatic plants with which the Indians 
cure themselves and their medicinal or poisonous qualities. 


QUESTION XXVII 


Describe the native animals, birds of prey and domestic fowl 
and those introduced from Spain and state how they breed and 
multiply. 

TEQUIZISTLAN 

They have trees of the native cherry and a quantity of agave 
plants which yield sweet juice and fibre. When cooked the leaves 
furnish food and when. dried supply fuel. They have no other 


78 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


fruit trees, for the earth contains saltpeter and they could not grow. 
The seeds they sow are maize, chia, huauhtli, and beans, also some 
wheat, about fifty fanegas [bushels] more or less. ‘They breed 
dogs from Spain and some native ones which multiply. Of the 
wild native animals there are coyotes, and some hares and rabbits. 


TEPECHPAN 


Within the confines of this town there are some quince and peach 
trees and some native cherry trees. In one of the dependencies 
named Maquizco they grow a quantity of pear, peach and quince 
trees which give fruit at Christmas. Throughout the whole dis- 
trict there grow quantities of agaves which yield sweet juice and 
fuel. The natives cultivate and gather for their food maize, beans, 
squashes, peppers, chia, and huauhilt. Of Spanish vegetables they 
have lettuce, radishes, onions and parsley. They have wheat 
which, although the quantity is small, serves as provision for the 
natives. They have raised quantities of dogs of those brought 
from Spain and a few of the native ones. Of wild animals there are 
coyotes. 


ACOLMAN 


They have a quantity of the native cherry tree which produce 
much good fruit. They have walnut, pear, and quince trees and 
vines in the orchard of the monastery of this town. Of agave and 
cactus plants, which are the principal food of the natives, there is 
an abundance. They cultivate maize, beans, chia, and huauhtl, on 
which they live. They have no other vegetables out of careless- 
ness, for they would grow well in this district. They cultivate 
wheat with and without irrigation, and it does very well, but they 
only sow a small quantity. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


They have an abundance of the native cherries, of the edible 
cacti and agaves which sustain them, and which they sell in the 
neighboring towns. In said town and its confines they harvest 
much maize, beans, huauhili, and chia for their maintenance. They 
also raise some Spanish vegetables. The natives sow but little 
wheat although what is raised is very good. | 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 79 


QUESTION XXX 


State whether there are salt works in or near said town and from 
where they get their supplies of salt and of all other things they 
need for sustenance and clothing. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


In ancient times they used to make salt in this town with which 
they provided the City of Mexico. For the past thirty-eight 
years they have given up doing so because the number of inhabi- 
tants have decreased and because the water of the lagoon has risen 
and covered the salt beds from which they extracted the salt. 


TEPECHPAN 


They lack salt and procure what they need from the City of 
Mexico or the town of San Cristobal Ecatepec or from Exqui- 
payaque, a dependency of Texcoco. For their clothing they pro- 
cure cotton from the estate of the Marques del Valle. 


ACOLMAN 


The salt they use is brought from the towns of Tequizistlan and 
Acatepec and Mexico; the cotton which they use for clothing 
themselves is brought fda the land of the Marques del Valle and 
from the mountain of Meztitlan. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


There are no salt beds in said town or its dependencies, so all 
that is consumed there is brought from the City of Mexico, from 
the town of San Cristobal or from the mountain range of Meztitlan 
and the hot lands. The cotton they use for clothing 1 is brought 
from the region of Panuco. 


QUESTION XXXI 


Describe the form and construction of their houses and the ma- 
terials for building them that are found in the towns or the other 
places from which they are brought. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


The houses and constructions in which they live are generally 
built with stone foundations and adobe walls covered with flat 


80 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


roofs. The stone needed for building is to be had in the neighbor- 
hood. The timber required is brought from the woodland of Tex- 
coco, distant four leagues. 


TEPECHPAN 


All of the houses in this town and its dependencies are generally 
built with stone foundations, adobe walls and flat roofs. 


ACOLMAN 


All of their houses and structures have stone foundations, adobe 
walls and flat roofs. They have an abundance of stone. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


All the inhabitants of this town and its dependencies live in 
houses built of stone and adobe, with flat roofs. The houses of the 
principal personages are curiously and elaborately constructed.! 


QUESTION XXXII 


Describe the fortresses in said towns and the strongholds there 
are in their vicinity and within their confines. 


QUESTION XXXIII . 


Describe the trade and traffic and dealings with which the 
Spanish and native inhabitants of the town support themselves 
and state with what produce and how they pay their tributes. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


The Indians live by farming. They have the custom of buying 
cotton brought from the Marques del Valle and of this they spin 
and weave skirts and mantles (mantas) with designs, that they 
sell. The natives of Acaltecoya, subordinate to Tequizistlan, deal 
in fish and game birds and pay their tribute with these. 


1 In a document dated 1563 mention is made of the great palaces then occupied by Alonso 
Bazan, a descendant of the Kings of Texcoco, who was the native lord and encomendero of 
Teotihuacan. 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 81 


TEPECHPAN 


The inhabitants of this town live by cultivating their lands and 
raising hens and have no other trade or dealings. They pay their 
tribute to their Encomendero in agaves, money and maize as is 
generally done by the other towns in New Spain. 


ACOLMAN 


The inhabitants live by farming and raising hens and have no 
other trade or dealings. With their profits and the sweet juice of the 
agave, they pay their tribute in money and in maize. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The natives incline to farming and its produce is their principal 
means of support. They raise Spanish and native fowl for nourish- 
‘ment and have no other trade. 


QUESTION XXXIV 


State the diocese of the archbishopric or bishopric or abbey to 
which the town belongs; the district in which it is situated and 
its distance in leagues. State in what direction from it lies the 
cathedral town and the capital of the district and whether the 
leagues are long or short; the roads straight or winding and the 
country flat or rough. 


QUESTION XXXV 


Mention the cathedral or parish church or churches in each town 
with the number of beneficiaries and prebends in each; if the town 
contains any chapel or noteworthy endowment, state whose it is 
and who was its founder. 


QUESTION XXXVI 


Mention the monasteries of friars and convents of nuns of each 
order there may be in each town; when and by whom they were 
founded and the number of friars and nuns therein. Mention also 
anything noteworthy there may be in the towns. 


82 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


QUESTION XXXVII 


Mention also the hospitals, colleges and pious institutions there 
may be in said towns and by whom and when they were instituted. 


TEQUIZISTLAN 


This town belongs to the diocese and archbishopric of the City 
of Mexico which lies to its Southwest at a distance of five leagues 
of level country. 'The boundary of the district of Tequizistlan lies 
to the North of the City of Mexico at a distance of a quarter of a 
league. 


TEPECHPAN 


Tepechpan pertains to the diocese and archbishopric of Mexico ~ 
and lies in the district of the town of Tequizistlan, a quarter of a 
league to its North, and five leagues from the City of Mexico, 
wherein the cathedral stands. 


ACOLMAN 


The town belongs to the archbishopric of the City of Mexico 
where the cathedral of the diocese stands, at a distance of five long 
leagues of level country. In Acolman there is a monastery of 
friars of the order of Saint Augustine, in which there is a school 
in which grammar is taught. Twenty-four monks reside therein 
and five priests for the administration of religious doctrine to the 
natives. They have a very grand church with a vaulted ceiling 
and a very sumptuous portal of carved stone; also a good orchard 
within the monastery walls, in which they gather quantities of 
Spanish walnuts and cherries, of native cherries and plums. This 
monastery was founded in 1539, the provincial of the order of Saint 
Augustine being the reverend father Friar George Davila. 


TEOTIHUCAN 


The town of San Juan and its dependencies pertain to the diocese 
and bishopric of the City of Mexico and is two leagues distant 
from Tequizistlan, the headquarters of the Corregidor. In San 
Juan there is a monastery of Franciscan friars who administer the 
doctrine to the natives. They have a good church and fair house 
in which three priests and a lay brother generally reside. The 


TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 83 


monastery was founded in 1566, the provincial of the Franciscan 
order being Friar Miguel Navarro and the guardian of said town 
Friar Francisco Perez. 


PARAGRAPH L 


And after the said description has been written down, it is to be 
signed by the persons who helped to make it. It is to be sent 
without delay with this instruction, to the person who may have. 
forwarded it. : 

TEQUIZISTLAN 


The description of this town was written therein on the twenty- 
second of February, 1580, and was signed by the Corregidor Fran- 
cisco de Castafieda and those who knew how to write, namely 
Juan de Vera, Antonio de San Francisco, .................. [an illegible name 
followed by the word fiscal, that is prior or censurer]. 

Benito Martinez, clerk. 


TEPECHPAN 


Description written in the town of Tepechpan on the twenty- 
third of February, 1580, and signed by the Corregidor Francisco 
de Castafieda, and those who could sign: Juan de Vera; Don An- 
tonio de Herrera; Rodrigo de Sandoval. 

Brentto Martinez, clerk. 


ACOLMAN 


The description of the town of Acolman, under the encomienda 
of Francisco de Solis, citizen of Mexico City, was written in said 
town on the twenty-sixth of February, 1580, those present while 
it was being drawn up being: the Corregidor Francisco de Cas- 
tafieda, Benito Martinez, Alonso de Solis, Francisco de Miranda, 
and Juan de Vera, Spaniards; Don Diego Vazquez, Governor, 
Don Guillermo de San Francisco, Alcalde, Lucas de Molina, Don 
Cristobal de Santiago, Pablo Zihuatecpanecatl, Regidors; Don 
Juan Bautista, Diego Atecpanecatl, and Antonio de Santiago, 
chieftains and natives of said town.! 


1 The above entry appears as a superscription to the report from Acolman and the signatures 
follow separately at the end. 


84 OFFICIAL REPORTS 


Signed by the Corregidor Francisco de Castafieda and those 
present who could write, who were Juan de Vera; Guillermo de 
San Francisco, Alealde; Diego Vazquez, Governor. 

BrEniTO Martinez, clerk. 


TEOTIHUACAN 


The description of the town of San Juan Teotihuacan, under 
the charge or encomienda of Don Antonio Bagan, Chief Alguazil 
of the Holy Office of the Inquisition,! was written in said town on 
the first of March, 1580, there being present Don Cristobal Pimen- 
tel and Luis de San Miguel, Alcaldes; Antonio de San Francisco, 
Mateo Juarez, and Antonio de los Angeles, Regidores; Andres 
Dalbiz, Don Lorengo and Francisco Quaunochtli, chief Indians of 
said town; Alonso de Servantes and Juan de Vera, Spaniards. It 
was translated by Francisco de Miranda; interpreted and signed 
by the Corregidor and those who knew how to write: Francisco 
de Castafieda, Andres Dalbiz, Damian Bravo, Gabriel de i Cruz, 
Francisco de Miranda. 

Benito Martinez, clerk. 


1 It is deeply significant and illuminating to find that absolute authority, civil and ecclesi- 
astical, was wielded in Teotihuacan, the ancient religious centre, by Don Antonio Bagan, who, 
like his brother Don Francisco before him, was an Inquisitor of high rank, being Chief Con- 
stable of the Holy Office. There can be no doubt that much of the destruction and covering 
up of the ancient monuments in Teotihuacan must be attributed to the Inquisition, whose 
officers systematically and ruthlessly carried out the policy of exterminating idolatry, initiated 
by Cortés and Bishop Zummaraga, a task in which they were enthusiastically aided by the 
native Catholic neophytes. 


PraBopy Museum Papers Vou. XI, No. 2, PLATE 1 


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PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


VoL. XI, No. 3 


AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY 
OF HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND 
MIXED BLOOD 


BY 


LESLIE C. DUNN 


BASED UPON DATA COLLECTED BY 


ALFRED M. TOZZER 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1928 





PRINTED AT THE HARVARD UNIVERST’ 


ae 


NOTE 


At the time when Dr. Tozzer gathered the data which are 
analyzed in this paper practically no measurements had 
been undertaken on living Hawaiians. Later Dr. Louis 
Sullivan made most extensive anthropometrical investiga- 
tions in Hawaii. His lamented death came before his data 
could be worked up. It has thus seemed worth while to pub- 
lish the results of the investigation of the present data al- 
though they are far less adequate than those collected by 
Sullivan. 

Dr. Hooton, who suggested this investigation, has given 
amply of his time and attention throughout its analysis, 
and has seen it through the press owing to the absence of 
_ Dr. Dunn in Europe. 

The publication is made possible through the kindness of 
George P. Castle, Esq., of Honolulu, and of Dr. Tozzer. 


CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Dvrector 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, 
December 15, 1927 





CONTENTS 


re ee eo PE ee a, 91 

Me Vee ee ig Ale eee a 91 

Pe eeecneevinterial... 60. Ss ne as ee we ee miele ae 92 

ireimeuieo the Niaterial . 6°... . a... ee ned eae eG a OD 

Meee eo rce SuD|eCtGesy 2 ew ee 95 

Perera ele 8 a ea ea Se ee ey / 

eee tcoueory.in await... 28.2. 2 Ve ee ek. 98 
BAH Eel 

AN ANTHROPOMETRIC DESCRIPTION OF THE Native HawallAns 

etree ecmcntis fe ee al U0 

ieetevegence ancts Analysis. 9. 2 2... et Pe. 100 

Peper es mogychorm. fo 2, Oe, eae aoa 

1 ne AC eo a Pea Ng tage = 101 

Pee eMC t,o es ee a ee 103 

Pmeinoemec ouliine Leight... .°. 0. 2k ee ee 103 

iyetieigit of phoulder: . . . . .°. . Ee ee ee 104 

Sembee tenrOrmArin = oS PP OA 105 

Bell errch rm engin oy ko a wee a 106 

DIMI ei Se ma See eg 106 

Conclusions from bodily dimensions ........ 108 

By Cephalic and Wacial Characteristics. . ..... =... =. 108 

Me er eleionie ss a OE. Pee aa (1 

me ee TCACthice ss. 2 oy oe we Re ee mee til 

CANES eo a ge eel 113 

Mey ee ercomatic diameter 2-2. ges bk ee a 114 

femevasion-wienton Height 2, 2.0. 4). 2 +8 2 21D 

Pee is clgde< a ke 115 

VIT- Nasal Height, Breadth and Shape ......... 117 

Conclusions from dimensions of head and face. . . . 119 

en Oneviensurable Characteristics . . 0. i... 2°. 6: eo. 119 

Pee Color. 3 Te We ara MON eee ee esi Y 

pe eee 2 a i ee 120 

meee COLON) aa oe a oe RO ee ee ees 

MMSE Ae CTs Wars. ay te. yee eo ee ee ae 11 

em sow OTT eet ee se eS a She Uo ‘gh ge nm. en ee 122 

Vaemeiongvolen<Kprcanthic) Fold .°. 2°... . . £45 123 

SPM LOPMAC ISIE Gere ete css Skee he eh we a8 123 

Pereeme ere LYAsts (co 8 ee es Se a we we Pee 123 

D. General Characteristics of the Hawallans ........ 124 

deetitomoceneiiy Of hype... ,94 Gon eae Se ee 125 


Pi HOTtI eters fe es kx. ata te ee eee es 128 


90 CONTENTS 


PART II 


DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHER RaAcEs IN HAWAII AND OF DESCEND- 


ANTS FROM CROSSES OF HAWAIIANS WITH OTHER RACES 


Chinese and Chinese-Hawaiians ....... 
Description of the South Chinese 
Comparison of Hawaiians and Chinese 


First Hybrid (F;) Generation from Hawaiian x Chinese . 
Mensurable Traits. y2. <2) 5 20 ee 


Non-mensurable ‘Draits .. 22 3 eee 


General Character of the F,; Generation . . . . 
Homogeneity .. op te 2 ok Ge a 


Resemblances to Parente 
Backcross Generations .. . Wy I et re 


Matings of F,; with Hawaiians . 5 Rs ee : : . 


Other Hawaiian-Chinese Mixtures . . Ree: 
Diseussion  .3). 0. 20h ena ee 
White Races and White- Hawaiian Hybrids 


The European-Parent ‘Types =e ee : 


Comparison of Hawaiians and Whites 


First Hybrid (F,) Generation from Hawaiian x White pits 
Body Sikes ea ee ot a 6 ee 
Head Measurements .°. .. .... 0 en 
Face Measurements . .°. ... . >) ee 
NOS6. 5 ltr ct eet eae ae 4 
Hair’ 0g ea) See Sie 
Eye Color at ac). 6 


Skin: Color. —. 2...) 8 Sa ae 
Other Tratts 2. 2 0 = ae eee 
Second: Generation «=. 2-7 °2 4.04) ee 


Backeross Generations ... ew) 


Comparison of Mensurable Traits ‘> 42 pt ash ee 
Hybrids of Hawaiians and South Europeans. . . . 
Other Hawaiian-White Mixtures. .... . 


General Summary and Discussion ..... . . ; ; oe 
Appendix .. . iat Pb wih a age ae ee 
Tables of Raw Data. Le oy oe ee” 


Bibliography 


AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 
HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 


INTRODUCTION 


Ir is the purpose of this report to present and discuss a large body 
of detailed evidence bearing on the physical consequences of racial 
hybridization in the Hawaiian Islands. The study was under- 
taken and the data were collected and analyzed in the hope that 
the results would contribute towards a solution of the important 
problem of race mixture. We have regarded this problem chiefly 
as a biological one, the solution of which depends on the acquisi- 
tion of knowledge concerning the inheritance and interrelationship 
of the specific traits which differentiate races. The most needed 
contributions at present appear to be detailed descriptions of racial 
traits and of their behavior in inheritance. 

This is particularly true of the great problem presented by the 
population of the Hawaiian Islands. Here, as is evident from the 
data presented by several observers, e.g. (1, 2, 3) +, a great natural 
experiment in racial hybridization is taking place, in which the 
blood of the native Hawaiian people is being mingled with that of 
most of the chief racial groups of the world. This amalgamation 
of diverse races is, aS our own observations and those of others 
show, of comparatively recent origin. The racial elements con- 
tributing to the hybrid population are still present in Hawaii 
together with the progeny of various crosses between them. A 
tempting opportunity is therefore offered for anthropologists and 
geneticists to study the inheritance of racial traits. 


PLAN OF THE STUDY 


It was this opportunity which in 1916 prompted Professor A. M. 
Tozzer and Professor E. A. Hooton of Harvard University to 
make plans for studying the races and hybrids of Hawaii. The 
writer, as a student of genetics, was called upon to collaborate in 


1 The titles of papers which are referred to by number in the text will be found in the bib- 
liography at the end. 


92 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


the plans, and to undertake the analysis of the data relating to 
the descriptions of the pure races and of their hybrids. Our plans 
called for (1) the accumulation of anthropometric data for as many 
subjects of known race or mixture as could be measured; (2) data 
on the fertility, longevity, mental capacity, etc. of subjects of pure 
and mixed races; (3) analysis of these data with the objects of dis- 
covering the mode of inheritance of specific traits; the effect of 
crossing on physical traits, growth, fertility, vigor, etc. and the 
differences between various racial crosses in these respects. We 
also hoped to obtain from these data some light on the vexed 
question of the racial origins and affinities of the population of 
Hawaii and of other Polynesian peoples as well. 

It is not surprising that so ambitious a plan remains unfulfilled; 
for, with the time and resources at our disposal, we were able to 
accomplish only a part of what we set out to do. It soon became 
evident, for example, that the data on hybrid peoples had value 
directly in proportion to the completeness of our knowledge of 
the parent races. There proved to be almost no data of value on 
the physical traits of living native Hawaiians, and it became our 
first task to make good so far as we were able this deficiency in our 
knowledge. We also realized that the behavior of racial traits in 
inheritance, or even the descriptions of racial hybrids could only 
be established from observations on a relatively large number of 
subjects from each cross. We therefore limited our efforts to ob- 
taining anthropometric descriptions of living native Hawaiians, and 
of the descendants of crosses between Hawaiians on the one hand, 
and members of the Chinese and white races on the other, since 
these crosses offered the largest amount of material and the clear- 
est differences in parental traits. It is principally this evidence 
which will be presented in the reports which follow. A general 
interpretation of the evidence and its relation to other racial 
crosses has not been attempted, since our own and other com- 
parative data are not as yet complete enough to justify general- 
izations. 


COLLECTION OF THE MATERIAL 


The field work for this study was undertaken by Dr. Tozzer, 
who spent the summers of 1916 and 1920 in and about Honolulu. 
Prior to beginning the actual work of observation, a standard 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 93 


schedule of measurements to be taken was drawn up by Dr. Hooton, 
and a technique of measurement decided on and practised which 
should conform throughout to the reeommendations of the current 
international agreement. (4) The provisions of this agreement, 
therefore, serve as a description of the methods employed in this 


The following measurements were taken: 


study. 

Body i 
Py. 

3. 

A, 

5. 

6. 

Head 76 
8. 

9. 

Face 10. 
ET 

12 

13 

14 

15: 


Weight.* 

Stature. 

Height of Acromion. 
Height of Dactylion 
Chest circumference. 
Sitting height. 

Length. 

Breadth. 

Minimum frontal diameter. * 
Bizygomatic diameter.* 
Bigonial diameter.* 


. Nasion-menton height. 
. Nasion-prosthion height. 
. Nasal height. 


Nasal breadth. 


The following observations were made: 


ie 


8. 
9, 
10. 


NED OV o9 PS 


Skin color (on an unexposed part). 

Head hair: color, form. 

Eye color. 

Eyelids: obliquity of opening, epicanthus. 
Brow ridges: degree of development.* 
Forehead: height, breadth, slope.* 

Nose: height and breadth of root, height and profile of 
bridge, inclination of septum. 
Prognathism. 

Thickness of lips. 

Dynamometric pressure. 


* Measurements taken on only a portion of the series. 


Measurements of the circumference of the chest and of the mini- 
mum frontal and bigonial diameters of the head were made only 
on those subjects measured in 1916. Most of the measurements 
were made on fully clothed subjects, and in some cases shoes 
were worn. A deduction of from 2 to 4 cm. was made from the 


94 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


height, acromic height, and dactylic height measurements of sub- 
jects wearing shoes, depending on the height of the heels worn. 

Skin color was recorded for relatively few of the subjects because 
of the unsatisfactory color scales available and because of the 
difficulty of finding unexposed areas of skin on which to judge the 
normal skin color of the subject. Even on those subjects for which 
observations are recorded, the color determination is of doubtful 
accuracy because of the possible tanning of the skin. In 1916 skin 
colors were recorded in terms of Broca’s color scale; in 1920 the 
better scale of von Luschan (Hautfarben-Tafel made by Puhl and 
Wagner, Rixdorf) was used. Comparison was in all cases made 
with the volar surface of the forearm in the least exposed part. 

Hair colors were distinguished by name only and the following 
terms used in recording: black, very dark brown, dark brown, 
brown, light brown, reddish brown and yellow. 

Hair form was recorded as straight, wavy (slight or medium), 
curly, frizzy, kinky and wiry. 

The eye colors recognized were black, very dark brown, dark 
brown, brown, light brown, hazel, blue, and light blue. 

Strength was measured by means of Collin’s Dynamometer and 
the squeeze pressure recorded in kilograms. 

In addition to the information noted on the face of the schedule, 
each subject was questioned concerning his parentage, and the 
race of his father, mother and other known ancestors was recorded 
on his schedule, together with any additional or confirmatory 
evidence concerning his pedigree. Such additional evidence was 
obtained from school or other public records, relatives, friends, etc. 
An effort was made also to get information concerning the relative 
fecundity and viability of the various races and hybrids; and to 
this end, the number of children, in the case of parents, or of 
brothers and sisters in the case of unmarried subjects; was sought 
for and recorded. The absolute amount of information obtained 
in this way was too meager to be of use and is not reported here. 

The choice of the subjects to be observed was governed in the 
1916 observations by a desire to obtain data on pure Hawaiians 
and on crossbred subjects in general. In 1920 a particular effort 
was made to increase the series of pure Hawaiian observations, and 
to obtain data on hybrids involving Hawaiian as one element in 
the cross. The series obtained cannot be regarded as a random 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 95 


sample of the Hawaiian population, as far as the frequency of pure 
races or of hybrids other than Hawaiian are concerned. It does 
give a fair sample of the frequency and the stage of mixture be- 
tween Hawaiian and other races, since all available persons who 
had any Hawaiian blood were measured. 

In respect to social, occupational, and local groups, it is improb- 
able that a purely random sample of the population was secured. 
The chief departure of our sample from a random one is its inclu- 
sion of a relatively large number of subjects from each of a few occu- 
pational groups. The individuals measured may roughly be classi- 
fied as follows: fishermen, police, stevedores, teachers, members of 
Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. and kindred organizations, school stu- 
dents, workers in pineapple factories, and attendants at an Ha- 
waiian church. The fishermen, police, stevedores, and possibly the 
teachers, are from selected groups, probably above the average in 
general size. The school and church attendants probably constitute 
arandom sample, while the factory workers may deviate somewhat, 
owing to occupational selection. Size characters and variability in 
general may thus be somewhat higher than normal in a sample in- 
cluding a greater proportion of the larger-sized individuals of the 
population. 

Most of the Hawaiians and part Hawaiians measured were na- 
tives of the island of Oahu, on which Honolulu is situated, although 
in the groups of stevedores and students at the summer school are 
included a number of natives from other islands in the Hawaiian 
eroup; Maui, Molokai, Hawaii, and Kauai. A key to the occupa- 
tional groups and nativity of the subjects is given in Appendix 
Table I. 


TREATMENT OF THE MATERIAL 


CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECTS 


The completed schedules were turned over to the writer for 
analysis and were immediately classified and grouped for study. 
All subjects reporting themselves as of one pure race were provi- 
sionally grouped together; and, if no evidence from other records or 
from physical traits appeared to contradict the statement of pedi- 
gree, they were regarded as members of that racial group. Con- 
siderable care was exercised by the original observer to exclude 
doubtful persons from pure race groups, and additional precau- 


96 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


tions have been taken by the writer to exclude any subject with 
characters obviously abnormal for his supposed group. Such 
exclusion must be used with care however and is usually not ap- 
plicable to quantitative characters which are so variable in the 
purest races. Several eliminations from the pure Hawaiian group 
were made on the basis of eye color, hair form, and other evidences 
of mixture, chiefly with a white race or negro. 

The cross-bred subjects had to be classified almost wholly on the 
basis of their own statements, although in many cases these state- 
ments could be verified. No check on these statements was avail- 
able in the physical appearance of the subjects, however, since the 
inheritance of most the racial traits involved was unknown. Hy- 
brids were classified according to the race of their parents and the 
number of generations intervening since the original cross. Using 
as an example the hybrids between Hawaiians and Chinese, the 
following classes were recognized: 

1. F; Hawaiian x Chinese — The direct result of a cross be- 
tween Hawaiian female and Chinese male, the subject’s pedigree 
reading: mother Hawaiian, father Chinese. 

2. F, Hawaiian X Chinese.— The result of a cross between two 
IF’, hybrids; the subject’s pedigree reading mother one-half Ha- 
wailan, one-half Chinese; father one-half Hawaiian, one-half 
Chinese. The classification of this generation may contain a 
few errors; since, unless we know the race of all four grandparents, 
there is a possibility that the parents are themselves second genera- 
tion hybrids. Because of the comparatively recent introduction 
of Chinese in large numbers, this is not highly probable. There 
is also the possibility that “one-half,’’ as a description of a racial 
element in a parent, is merely a guess, and indicates only admix- 
ture of the race named. The number of such hybrids is not large 
and few wide conclusions are drawn from this generation. 

3. BC F, X Hawaiian. — The result of a backcross of an Fy 
hybrid to a pure Hawaiian, the subject’s pedigree reading: father 
one-half Hawaiian, one-half Chinese; mother pure Hawaiian. 

4. BC F; < Chinese.— The result of a backcross of an F; hybrid 
to a pure Chinese, the subject’s pedigree reading: mother one-half 
Hawalian one-half Chinese; father pure Chinese. 

5. Other mixtures. — In this category are placed those hybrids 
between two races which have been produced by crosses other 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 97 


than those outlined above, but in too small numbers to be classified 
separately. 

After such classification, the pure race and hybrid groups were 
subdivided on the basis of sex, and again on the basis of age. Males 
of 20 years and older and females of 18 years and over were classi- 
fied as adult. Means and other constants for quantitative char- 
acters have been calculated from these adult series of each sex. 
In summarizing descriptive, non-mensurable characters the im- 
mature subjects have also been included. 


‘STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 


The original data have been tabled separately by race, sex and 
age, and are to be found in the appendix, Tables I to V. The 
principal ratios or indices calculated for each individual have been 
incorporated in these tables. From these raw data, the frequency 
distributions, which are presented by separate measurements in 
the text tables, have been formed. With the numbers available it 
has been necessary to use rather coarse groupings in seriating the 
data for statistical treatment. In general, that grouping has been 
used which by actual test gave the smoothest graduation, except 
that for any one measurement, the classification was determined 
for the males (or the large group), and applied arbitrarily to the 
females (or the small comparable group). 

From the grouped frequencies of the larger distributions have 
been calculated the mean, the standard deviation, the coefficient 
of variation, and the probable errors of each of these constants, 
by the usual formulae as given in treatises on statistical methods 
(5,6, 7). In the case of distributions containing few (less than 20) 
individuals, the constants have been calculated from the un- 
grouped material. 

The variation constants for indices and proportions have been 
calculated by Pearson’s formulae. (8) 


M, = 7" (1 — V3 —171,2V1V2) is for the mean 
2 
and 
¢ = = 4/ Vi —V3-— 2r1,2V1V2 for the standard deviation; 
2 


where M; is the mean of the first variable such as head breadth, 
M, the mean of the second such as head length, Vi and V2 the 


98 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


coefficients of variation (divided by 100) of the first and second 
variables respectively, and ri, 2 the coefficient of correlation be- 
tween the variables. Although the means of indices as calculated 
by the use of this formula have not differed significantly, in the 
present study, from the means as usually calculated directly from 
the frequency distributions of indices, the method here used in- 
volves less labor and is probably more accurate than deducing 
variation constants of indices from the array of individual indices 
without regard to the correlation between the component variables. 

In order to obtain comparative data from cranial material, we 
have in several cases reduced cranial to cephalic indices by means 
of the correction factor proposed by Craig (9). Other methods 
are noted as used. 

The separate seriation of measurements by sex and age has 
resulted in many small and irregular distributions, and we have 
not tried to combine them by reducing both sexes to a common 
scale or by correcting the observations on immature subjects to an 
adult basis. Larger distributions and smoother graduations might 
have been obtained by this method, yet I believe that there is a 
basic objection to such a practice. If corrections for age or sex 
are to be applied, they must be calculated as the differences be- 
tween the means of two distributions. One must be taken as the 
standard, and a certain proportion of this standard added to each 
individual of the distribution to be corrected. This results in no 
addition whatever to the original data, but only in multiplying 
the distribution by a portion of itself, along with the errors which 
attended the original measurements. The resulting amplified 
distribution appears larger than the standard; its probable error 
is lowered by the larger number of individuals in it, although the 
number of original observations remains unaltered. These changes 
are probably wholly fictitious and likely to be deceptive and it 
seems a much sounder procedure to face the paucity of numbers 
and practise the rigid conservatism in drawing conclusions which 
this condition dictates. 


RactAL FREQUENCY IN HAWAII 


A racial classification of all of the subjects observed is given in 
the table on page 177, and the detailed data on all subjects 
measured will be found in the appendix tables. 3 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 8) 


About a third of the 508 subjects measured were pure Hawaiians, 
while all except a few of the remainder were descendants of crosses 
between native Hawaiians and other races. The few individuals 
not included in these classes were scattered among various pure 
races of the table (A), and mixtures either unknown or not involving 
Hawaiian (EK). The hybrid groups involving Hawaiian as one 
element have been broken up into (B); those in which only one 
other race beside Hawaiian was involved, producing a dihybrid 
combination; (C) those involving two other races besides Hawaiian 
(trihybrids); and (D) those in which more than two other races 
participated. The diliybrid groups were by far the most numer- 
ous, comprising 247 of the whole 295 crossbred subjects. The 
trihybrid mixtures were few, only forty-five in number, while 
numbers of individuals with four races represented in the ancestry 
were practically negligible. On the whole the more races involved 
in the ancestry of an individual, the fewer representatives are 
found, and, incidentally, the less reliable the pedigree as given. 

A preliminary discussion of the frequency and approximate dates 
of origin of the principal racial crosses in Hawaii has already been 
published. (10) A fuller treatment of this matter, leading to a 
general picture of racial hybridism in Hawaii, will be given in the 
parts of this study devoted to the data on the hybrid subjects. At 
present our chief concern is with the principal and perhaps most 
interesting single race involved; i.e., the native Hawaiians. 


100 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


PART I 


AN ANTHROPOMETRIC DESCRIPTION OF THE NATIVE 
HAWAIIANS 


PRELIMINARY STATEMENTS 


Our description of the physical anthropology of the native 
Hawaiians rests on observations of 158 subjects, concerning whose 
pedigree there seemed to be no reasonable doubt. Several pre- 
sumptive Hawaiians were excluded from this classification because 
of conflicting pedigree records, or by the possession of certain 
features falling far outside the normal range of variability of the 
bulk of the Hawaiians observed. Of these 158 subjects, 85 were 
males and 73 were females. Adults were separated from immature 
subjects for analysis of all characteristics affected by age, and the 
constants for pure Hawaiians were calculated from the records of 74 
males of age 20 and over, and of 34 females of age 18 and over. 
The numbers of immature subjects were too small to be treated in 
separate age groups, nor could they furnish information concern- 
ing the changes of the various bodily measurements during growth. 
Observations taken on these immature subjects have been used 
in establishing racial norms for such characteristics as hair color 
and form, skin color, eye color, etc. 

The groups on which we must depend for our most reliable in- 
formation concerning the mensurable physical characteristics of 
the Hawaiians are these two small groups of 74 males and 34 fe- 
males. Permanent racial standards cannot, of course, be estab- 
lished on such small samples as these. Nevertheless, since there 
are no other data on living pure Hawaiians, the constants here 
given may be used as temporary standards of comparison, until 
they are supplemented by more extensive evidence. 


Tue EVIDENCE AND ITS ANALYSIS 


The raw data for the study of the anthropometry of the Ha- 
walians are given in Appendix Table I, together with the chief 
indices and derived measurements calculated for each individual. 
The grouped distributions and constants for each dimension are 
given separately in the text tables accompanying the discussion, 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 101 


and all the constants have been summarized in Table 22. These 
data include for each subject the weight, height, shoulder height, 
dactylic height, sitting height, head length, head breadth, face 
width (bizygomatic diameter), face height (nasion-menton), 
height of upper face (nasion-prosthion), nasal height, and nasal 
breadth. ‘The cephalic index, the facial index, the nasal index, 
the index of sitting height, the arm length (shoulder height minus 
dactylic height) and the index of arm length are given in italics in 
the appendix tables. The descriptive characters are given as re- 
corded and will be discussed in a later section. 


GENERAL BODY FORM 


I. Stature (Table 1). The Hawaiians are a tall people. The 
mean height of the males, 171.3 cm., places them in the same class 
with the Tahitians (173.3),! the Samoans (171.7) and the Mar- 
quesans (174.3) and it is with these groups that they are most nearly 
related racially. ‘They are only slightly shorter than the white 
population of the United States (171.9), and approach closely the 
height of the taller North American Indians (Sioux 172.4). The 
females are shorter, averaging 162.6 cm., or 94.9 per cent of the 
male height. The sexual difference in height is rather less than 
that observed among races of similar height. 

The frequency distributions of these samples of the Hawaiians 
are given in Table 1. The height measurements have been 
grouped in two centimeter classes; but, even under this treatment, 
the graduation is not good and the distributions are irregular and 
give a poor approximation to a normal curve. Distinct indications 
of bimodality are absent, and it is probable that the irregularities 
are due to paucity of numbers rather than to the presence of more 
than one racial type in respect to stature. That the material 
studied is homogeneous is witnessed further by the comparatively 
short range of variation in height, 26 cm. in both sexes, and by 
the values of the dispersion measures, standard deviation and 
coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation is the more 
suitable for use in comparing these Hawaiians with other races, 
since it is stated in per cent and not in terms of the particular unit 
of measurement used. Its value for the height of Hawaiian males 


1 Comparisons are made, unless noted to the contrary, with data compiled by Martin (13). 















































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HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 103 


is but slightly greater than 2.9 per cent. This does not differ 
significantly from the variability of 3.05 per cent for Samoan males 
as determined by Sullivan (11). It is significantly less than the 
variability of pure Sioux males — 3.3 per cent (Sullivan 12) and 
of the modern Egyptians studied by Craig (9), the variability of 
various groups of the latter (comprising over 9000 individuals) 
ranging from 3.26 to 4.43 per cent. The Hawaiians are less vari- 
able in height than either of the last named homogeneous types. 

II. Sitting Height (Table 2). The mean absolute value of this 
measurement is of significance only as a record. Its chief impor- 
tance lies in its indication of bodily proportion and it must thence 
be stated as a percentage of the total stature. The data are pre- 
sented in this form in the next section. 

The frequency distribution itself shows a greater irregularity, 
a greater relative range and a higher variability than does the 
distribution of total stature. This may be due in part to the 
inherent error of the observation,! but a portion of the increased 
variability is probably real, since other segments of stature not 
susceptible to such error, show the same increase in variability. 
This conclusion is borne out by a comparison of the Hawaiians 
with the large series of Sioux studied by Sullivan (12). The coef- 
ficient of variability of sitting height of the Sioux males is 3.95 
per cent, which is greater than the variability of the same meas- 
urement in the Hawaiians (8.27 per cent), and greater also than 
the variability of the Sioux in total stature (3.3 per cent). We 
have found no comparable data on the sitting height of other 
Polynesian peoples. The mean sitting height of the females is 
95.8 per cent of the mean sitting height of the males. Thus the 
sexes differ less in sitting height than in total stature. 

III. Index of Sitting Height (Table 3). This index gives the 
sitting height as a proportion of total height and is an indication 
of the relative length of the trunk as compared with the rest of 
the body. The races of mankind in which this proportion has 
been studied differ relatively little in this respect. Its value ranges 
from a mean of 46.5 in the long legged Australians to slightly 
over 54 in Ainos and certain negroes (BaBinga). The Hawaiians 
fall in about the center of the range with a mean relative trunk 


1 Sitting height is difficult to measure accurately because of the varying thickness of fat and 
integument on the buttocks. 


104 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF HAWAIIANS 


length of 52.6 for the males and 53.13 for the females. The sexual 
difference in this index is not significant. The individual differences 
in respect to this index among the Hawaiians are relatively small, 
as can be seen in the frequency distribution in Table 3. Of the 
males 44 or 63.8 per cent are characterized by indices between 52 
and 53.9. It is an extremely compact distribution and is markedly 
asymetrical. The frequency curve descends slowly from the mode 
toward the lower limit of 49.5 and very rapidly toward the upper 
limit of 56.9. It would appear from this that the limit of variation 
in the direction of short leggedness is much more rigid than in the 
opposite direction. A negative skewness indicates that the same 
is true of the sitting height index in Sioux males. 

The variation constants for this index are lower than those for 
any other of the physical characteristics of the Hawaiians, although 
the differences between stature and sitting height in this respect 
are probably not significant. 

IV. Height of Shoulder (Table 4). This measure is chiefly 
of value in determining the absolute and relative arm length, by 
subtraction from it of the dactylic height. The distribution in its 
irregularity and variability resembles that of sitting height. In 
this segment the variability also exceeds that of the total stature. 

The mean shoulder height of the females is 95 per cent of that 
of the males, a sexual difference similar to that noted in sitting 
height. The variability of the two sexes is the same and there is 
no sexual difference in the proportion of shoulder height to stature 
(males 81.8 per cent, females 81.9 per cent). 

V. Length of Arm (Table 5). The length of arm in the Ha- 
wailans (acromion to dactylion III) varies through a rather wide 
range, 21 cm. in the males and 14 cm. in the females. The mean is 
77.76 cm. in the males, 72.07 cm. in the females. The arm length 
of the Hawaiians is practically the same as the arm length of the 
Siouan tribes (Sioux males 77.0 cm., females 71.8 cm.). In the 
male distribution there is some indication of a positive skewness 
while the small numbers in the female distribution preclude a 
comparison on this point. Certainly, however, this is the most 
variable of any of the bodily measurements yet considered. Much 
of this variability may be accounted for by the fact that it is an 
indirect measurement, liable to error (possibly cumulative) from 
two sources — the acromic and the dactylic measurements — 
neither of which is entirely accurate. 









































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106 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF HAWAIIANS 


The sexual differences in this measurement are somewhat greater 
than in the other bodily measurements, since the female mean is 
but 92.7 per cent of the male. The males are apparently somewhat 
more variable in respect to arm length. 

VI. Index of Arm Length (Table 6). The ratio of arm length 
to total height is 45.28 per cent for Hawaiian males and slightly 
less (44.33 per cent) for Hawaiian females. The means for Sioux 
males and females are 44.6 and 44.9 respectively. The distribu- 
tion of this proportion is irregular in both sexes, although the 
total range of variation is very small (42 to 48 per cent in males; 
41.5 to 46 per cent in females). This range of variation resembles 
the variation in racial means for this character in all races measured 
since the mean index varies only from 43.2 for Javanese to 48.5 for 
certain pygmy races. The variability of the index as measured by 
the coefficient of variability is likewise low—3.34 for males; 3.27 
for females as compared with 3.29 and 3.75 for Sioux males and 
females. As in the case of sitting height, the proportion is much 
_ less variable than the absolute dimension, indicating correlation 

between the part and the total stature. In the case of arm length 
the correlation with stature is very high (0.80+0.03). It is note- 
worthy that a dimension of the appendicular skeleton should show 
a closer relation to height than actual segments of height, such 
as sitting height. 

VII. Body Weight. The weights of a portion of the subjects were 
obtained, the measurements being recorded to the nearest pound, 
and in some cases, to the nearest five pound class. The distribu- 
tion of weight in each sex was highly variable and irregular. Be- 
cause of the small size of the sample, and the error attending the 
observations (variability of clothing, coarseness of the unit of 
measurement, etc.) the data are thought not to be comparable in 
accuracy to the measurements given above. They have, there- 
fore, not been given statistical treatment. We have been content 
to calculate the averages for a series of 60 adult males and 16 adult 
females. The averages are: males 170.3 pounds (7726 grams); 
females 153.1 pounds (6942 grams). These averages place the 


Hawaiians among the heavier races of men. The index of bodily 


Full weight < 100 
oe stature ® 


statures of the sixty male subjects for which both measures are 
available and has been found to be 1.53 which is considerably 


has been calculated from the weight and 








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108 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


higher than the averages for the males of European races |Martin 
(13), p. 248]. This tendency toward bodily fullness (stoutness) 
has been noted by many observers of the Hawaiians and other 
Polynesians and has been frequently attributed to their diet, mode 
of life and admiration for corpulence. In view of Davenport’s 
recent investigations (15), however, the Hawaiians may have an 
inherent racial tendency toward stoutness. 

Conclusions from Bodily Dimensions. On the whole, the means 
of the main bodily dimensions of living Hawaiians accord well with 
those given for other Polynesians (cf. Martin (13); Deniker (20); 
Sullivan (11)). The measures of variation (range, standard devia- 
tion, coefficient of variation) are of the same order of magnitude 
as those obtained from larger samples of other well defined races, 
for example with those of the 697 pure Siouan subjects collated 
by Sullivan (12). Wherever significant differences occur, these are 
found to be in the direction of lesser variability and greater homo- 
geneity on the part of the Hawaiians. 


CEPHALIC AND FACIAL CHARACTERISTICS 


I. Head Length (Table 7). (a) Dvzstribution. The graduation 
of this distribution is fairly regular for the males and poor for the 
females even with the rather coarse class intervals of 4 mm. which 
it has been necessary to use. Variation in head length has usually 
been found in larger samples of other races to be described by a 
normal curve of error and our data approximates this type although 
a slight positive skewness is in evidence. The male curve is mono- 
modal and a large majority of the individuals fall in the modal 
and two greater classes. The female curve shows some evidence 
of bimodality in the concentration of frequencies in the classes 
170-173 and 178-81, although in view of the small numbers this 
is probably not significant. 

(b) Mean. The mean head length of the males is 182.42 mm., 
of the females 178.79 mm., giving a sexual difference of 3.63 mm., 
which is barely significant. The female head length is about 98 per 
cent of the male length, indicating relatively less difference in this 
respect than between the sexes of other races. 

These mean head lengths are to be compared with other Poly- 
nesian material as follows: 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 109 


TABLE 7a. COMPARATIVE DATA ON CEPHALIC FEATURES OF POLYNESIAN 











PEOPLES 

Be ee lenctte jnendth| doe Authority 
Fis Wall.'. .°.°: 74 M 182.4 | 162.0 | 83.4 |This paper 
Bamoa: i... ; 68 M 196.6 | 154.8 | 81.3 |Sullivan (11) 
tepraier a: | 95 M 191.0 | 154.8 | 81.1 Seer (tts) 
Marquesas ....| 84 M 193.2 | 153.2 | 79.4 cee Tbe) 
Higa. Go. & 18 M 185.8 | 139.1 | 77.3?) von Luschan(16)Crania 
PGWOlb eee ee. 135 | M&F | 175.2 | 139.8 | 81.77)/Otis (19) Crania ! 








1 Chiefly from Kaui but including a few from Maui. 
2 Cephalic index derived from cranial index by means of Craig’s correction (addition of 2.5 
units to cranial index). 


The first five series refer to present inhabitants and are probably 
comparable. They differ somewhat, but agree in showing a signifi- 
cantly greater head length than the earlier data for crania of pre- 
vious inhabitants. A portion of this may be due to a difference 
in the technique of measurement. The racial classification of the 
cranial series is less certain than that of the living subjects, and 
evidence from the former is less reliable. 

(c) Variability. Both measures of variability are very high 
when compared with the same constants for other races as listed 
below: 


Standard Coefficient of i 
ead myo: Deviation (mm.)} Variation (%) SoU. 





co YQ |Male Female | Male Female 











Hawaiian ........| 74 34] 8.90 8.43] 4.89 4.71 | This paper 

UO UE ee ee hesece|p.09) ).22°1.2.98. 2:85 | Sullivan (11) 

Egyptian (19 dists.) | 9892! | 5.09-6.65?2 | 2.95-3.49? Craig (9) 

= ED 2 539 1561 6.16 5.09 | 3.16 2.72 | Sullivan (12) 
1 Males only. 2 Range by districts. 


No standard deviation for head length as high as that found for our 
Hawaiian series is listed by Martin (138, p. 705) for eight races. 

The range of variation of the Hawaiians is likewise very great. 
The comparative data for males only are given below: 


110 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 





Race No. Range (mm.) Authority 
Hawaiian. joie see oe eee 74 41 (162-203) This paper 
Samoans, =) wees Meee ee 68 29 (174-203) Sullivan (11) 
Marquesan.. tae. oe eee 84 32 (178-210) | Sullivan 
Hawaiian (skulla)}2. -.4eu 60 32 (162-194) Allen (17) 
Hawatiar (skulls); >. 2 18 20 (175-195) | von Luschan (16) 
LODRRE Acai eas ol Oe ee 95 37 (176-213) Sullivan 
Hawatiit:-o- 2.5 a eee 109 30 (163-193) Otis (19) 


In general our series shows a greater range of variation in head 
length than any of the other series quoted. Its lower limit coin- 
cides with Allen’s skull series, and its upper limit with Sullivan’s 
series from Samoa. ‘The technique used in the measurement of 
our own and Sullivan’s subjects was the same, and this comparison 
is the more enlightening. The chief difference here is the presence 
of a number of absolutely short headed subjects with head lengths 
of 162-174 mm. in our series and their complete absence from 
Sullivan’s series. All of these shorter headed individuals appear 
in the series measured in 1920. The range of the subjects in the 
1916 series was from 174-203, and is identical with Sullivan’s 
Samoan series. ‘The abnormally high range and variability in 
the head length of our whole series appear to be due to the addi- 
tion of about 124 per cent of very short headed subjects in the 
data secured in 1920. All except two of these short headed subjects 
were stevedores and half of them came from the island of Maui. 
Both of these groups have somewhat shorter heads than the gen- 
eral Hawaiian population (33 stevedores average 177.7, 10 males 
from Maui average 177.0, general average 182.4), so we are unable 
to decide whether the difference is racial or due to occupational 
selection. 

The slight difference in variability existing between the sexes 
in respect to head length is not significant in the present sample. 

II. Head Breadth (Table 8). (a) The distribution of head 
breadth in both sexes is in general similar to the distribution of 
head length. The graduation is irregular, though in general the 
curve is smoother than that for head length.. A positive skewness 
is in evidence in the distributions of both sexes, slight in the females, 
more pronounced in the males. Both distributions are undoubtedly 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 111 


monomodal, indicating that in all probability the different head 
breadths encountered are variations of one main type. 

(b) The mean of this type is 152.03 mm. for the males and 150.26 
mm. for the females. The sexual difference is 1.77+0.81 mm., 
which indicates that in the subjects measured the heads of females 
were not significantly narrower than those of the males. The fe- 
male width is 98.8 per cent of the male width. For comparison 
we may refer to Table 7a above. The head breadth of the Ha- 
waiians of our series agrees closely with the head breadth of living 
Samoans, but is considerably greater than the head breadth of the 
earlier series of crania. 

(c) Head breadth in these subjects, as is in general the case, is 
less variable both relatively and absolutely than head length (the 
coefficient of variation for the males is 3.80). Nevertheless the 
constants of variation are extremely high for an island people. 
The Hawaiians are more variable in head breadth than the Sa- 
moans reported by Sullivan (11) (coefficient of variation for males 
2.88). The coefficient of variation of head breadth of modern 
Egyptians (Craig (9)) varies in districts from 3.04 to 3.59 per cent. 
For Sioux Indians Sullivan (12) gives the variability for females 
3.47, males 3.20. Martin lists variabilities in head breadth for 
eight races. ‘The male values range from 2.76 (Aino) to 4.21 
(French); females from 2.47 (Tasmanians) to 3.78 (English). 
These Hawaiians are apparently more variable in head breadth 
than any races for which figures are given, with the exception of 
the composite English and French. The range of the Hawaiians 
in head breadth is 24 mm. (144-165) for the males and 23 mm. 
(138-161) for the females. This range is somewhat less than that 
met with in other racial groups, since the average range in head 
breadth of 13 races listed by Martin (p. 663) is about 29 mm. for 
males. The agreement between our data and the skull measure- 
ments in respect to range and variability of head breadth is no 
better than in the case of head length, but the comparability of 
the material is too uncertain to allow conclusions to be drawn con- 
cerning changes in the physical features of the Hawaiians. 

The range of the 1916 subjects was from 148 to 165 mm. with 
a mean of 158.78+0.45, while that of the 1920 subjects was from 
140 to 163 with a mean of 150.01+1.01. The difference between 
the means of the two series is 8.77 +1.10, which is eight times its 
error, and is undoubtedly significant. 






























































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HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 113 


III. Cephalic Index (Table 9). (a) The distribution of head 
shape as measured by the length-breadth index departs from the 
expected normal curve especially among the males. The positive 
skewness is greater than in either the length or breadth measure- 
ments and the distribution appears truncated at the dolichocephalic 
end. Only two males and one female can be said to be dolicho- 
cephalic (index under 75.9). Forty-three males (58 per cent) and 19 
females (56 per cent) are grouped in the relatively short space of 
three classes from 80-85.9. In the males the main part of the curve, 
i.e. about 78, is monomodal, and the two dolichocephalic individu- 
als are separated from the main distribution by a zero class, in- 
dicating a possibility that they may be discontinuously variable 
from the rest of the subjects and a distinct type. The same is true 
of the one female dolichocephal. 

(b) The mean cephalic index plainly places these Hawaiians 
among the brachycephalic races. The mean cephalic index for 
related races is given in Table 7a. 

The females, as is generally the case, are slightly shorter headed 
than the males, the sexual difference in mean index being 0.8 per 
cent; or the male index is about 99 per cent of the female. 

(c) Variability. All types of head shape were encountered 
among these Hawaiians from dolicho to extreme brachycephalic. 
The actual range of indices (males) was from 74 to 93 per cent, 
which is quite similar to the range of the related Samoan males 
74-89 per cent (Sullivan). The concentration of head shapes in the 
brachycephalic part of the range is chiefly responsible for the 
rather low value of the dispersion measures. Data from other 
representative racial types are given below: 








Group 7 ak Sex Pei i Authority 
PLAWUAUATISG cy. ac. 5... 74 Male 3.80 This paper 
OORT CTR aie en 68 . 4.341 Sullivan (11) 
PPO MAIIN oe ees ss. 9892 c 3.06—-4.35 Craig (9) 
OTS ea 537 x 4.03 Sullivan (12) 


1 These constants have apparently been calculated from the arrays of indices without regard 
to the correlation between the components of the index. This produces a somewhat higher 
apparent variability than the method employed in this paper. Cf. p. 97. 


114 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


The conclusion seems warranted that, although extremely variable 
in the absolute dimensions of the head, the Hawaiians measured 
are relatively conservative and constant in head shape. It prob- 
ably follows that the variability found in the absolute dimensions 
was due to variation in the degree of growth attained, nourish- 
ment, etc. rather than to a mixture of types of head form. _ 

The females were somewhat more variable in head form than 
the males, although the difference is not certainly significant. 

IV. Maximum Width of Face (Bizygomatic Diameter). Table 
10. (a) The frequency curve of variation in width of face is normal 
for the males between the classes 123-150. The graduation is 
regular, a single mode is in evidence, and there is only a slight nega- 
tive skewness. But above the class 150 there is a distinct tendency 
toward the formation of another mode about the class 153. The 
ten subjects with very wide faces occur in the 1916 data. They re- 
semble the other 1916 subjects in being much larger in all cephalic 
and facial dimensions than any of the 1920 subjects. The female 
frequencies are irregular and the curve describing their variation 
in facial width appears also to be bimodal, as though the larger 
group were made up of two or more groups differing in width of 
face. 

(b) The mean width of face (males 140.19 mm., females 136.71 
mm.) places these Hawaiians among the broader faced races. This 
dimension ranges in average value for the various races for which 
data are available from 116 to 153 mm. (Martin, p. 793); The 
Hawaiians fall in the upper part of the range together with other 
Polynesians and with the Mongoloid types in general. They agree 
in this character with the Samoans (males 145.9 mm., females 
136.5 mm.). We have not found other comparable data for Poly- 
nesians. 

The sexual difference in face width is greater than in the other 
head characters measured, and is statistically significant. The 
female bizygomatic diameter is 97.5 per cent of the male diameter. 

(c) The variability of the Hawaiians in face width is very great. 
The coefficient of variation for the males is 5.88 per cent as com- 
pared with 3.59 per cent for the face width of Samoan males and 
3.65 for Sioux males. The males are somewhat more variable than 
the females. 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 115 


V. Anatomical Height of Face (Nasion-Menton Height). Table 
11. (a) A repetition of all of the remarks made concerning face 
width would serve equally well for face height. There is a tend- 
ency toward bimodality in the upper part of the range in both 
sexes. 

(b) The mean values indicate that these Hawaiians have not 
only very broad but also very high faces. Racial averages for this 
trait vary from 103 to 131 mm. (males, Martin, p. 793), and the 
Hawaiians with a mean height of 122.72 mm. are near the upper 
limit of inter-racial variation. They resemble the closely related 
Samoans who have a face height of 131 mm., the greatest racial 
value for this trait which I have found. The faces of the Hawaiians 
are therefore absolutely large and massive, although smaller than 
those of the Samoans. The sexual difference in this dimension is 
marked and significant, the female face averaging only about 94.7 
per cent as high as the male. 

(c) The variability in height of face is the same as the variability 
in width of face. This group is more variable in face height than 
the Samoans (C. V. males 5 per cent), or the Sioux (C. V. males 
5.12 per cent). The variability of the sexes is, in view of the prob- 
able errors involved, about the same. 

Data for the nasion-prosthion height are also given (Table 12), 
but call for no discussion since this measurement enters into none 
of the proportions used. 

VI. Facial Index (Table 13). (a) The distribution of the index 
measuring the shape of the face is continuous and fairly regular 
in the males, and in spite of the tendency towards the formation of 
minor modes in the curves of variation in face width and height, 
the curve describing variation in shape of face has but one mode, 
and this falls in the same class (86-87.9 per cent) with the mean. 
Variation in shape of face appears to be described by a normal 
curve of error, indicating a degree of homogeneity in the material. 

(b) The mean indices (males 87.67 per cent, females 85.07 per 
cent) indicate an average meso- to leptoprosopic type, although all 
types of face form were encountered. Of the males 17 or about 
23 per cent had relatively broad euryprosopic faces (index below 
84), 22 or about 30 per cent fell in the meso group, 24 or nearly 
33 per cent were leptoprosope, while the remainder or about 14 
per cent had extremely narrow faces of the hyperlepto type (index 








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HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 117 


above 93). In mean and distribution they resemble the Samoans 
(average index 89.9) although they have relatively as well as ab- 
solutely somewhat narrower faces than the Samoans. The fe- 
males had significantly broader faces than the males, the female 
index being about 98 per cent of the male. 

(c) The chief peculiarity of variation in the shape of the face 
is the extremely wide range through which the index varies. The 
range is (male) from 74 to 100, and includes the whole range of 
racial face shapes so far encountered among the races of men. (The 
range of racial means as collated by Martin, p. 796, is only from 
80 to 97.2 per cent.) The variability measures are not, however, 
banormally high. The coefficient of variability (males 5.91) is but 
slightly greater than the same constant for Samoan males (5.42), 
and less than that of Sioux males (7.58). This is probably due to 
the clustering of frequencies about the modal value, since over 61 
per cent of the male subjects had indices between 84 and 92.9. 

The males were more variable than the females in shape of face. 

VII. Nasal Height, Breadth and Shape (Tables 14-16). (a) 
The measurements of these soft parts are much less accurate than 
the data for other characteristics described; and, aside from general 
indications, call for little discussion. Variation in height of nose is 
the most regular, but there is little approach to a normal curve in 
any of these dimensions. All are characterized by a wide range and 
higher variation constants than any of the other facial or cephalic 
measures. 

(b) In mean height and breadth of nose the Hawaiians resemble 
the Samoans, although the nose is absolutely shorter, and the index, 
which measures the shape of the nose, significantly higher than 
that of the Samoans (Hawaiian males index 82.9; Samoan males 
73.6). The Hawaiian nose is typically mesorrhine and relatively 
broader than the Samoan. Only the broader types of nose were 
found, no true leptorrhine types occurring in our sample. Seventy 
per cent of the subjects were mesorrhine, and the remainder were 
chamaerrhine, except for two subjects with indices of 100 and 102. 
The males appeared to have somewhat larger and relatively broader 
noses than the females. 

(c) Variation in the dimensions and shape of the nose is high. 
The variation constants are in general greater than for the corre- 
sponding measurements of the Samoans, and less than those of 
the Sioux. 







































































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HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 119 


Conclusions from Data on Dimensions of Head and Face. The 
data on the dimensions and shape of the head and face of the 
Hawaiians agree fairly well with Sullivan’s descriptions of the 
Samoans, but not with previous observations on Hawaiians, de- 
rived from cranial material. The heads measured were large and 
predominantly brachycephalic. Only three subjects were found 
to be dolichocephalic, and these appeared to be discontinuous vari- 
ates from the rounder headed type. The Hawaiian faces were 
found to be broad and massive like those of Mongoloid peoples. 
The dimensions and shape of the Hawaiian face are similar to those 
of the Samoan, but are somewhat narrower and less massive. 

The absolute dimensions of both head and face appeared to be 
abnormally variable; while the range, distribution and dispersion 
measures of the shape indices were not abnormal, but indicated 
rather a degree of homogeneity in the material. This difference 
is interpreted as due to a considerable environmental variation in 
growth as expressed in the absolute dimensions, while the form 
attained may be regarded as innate or racial. As we concluded 
from the comparison of bodily proportions, these presumably 
racial traits are relatively conservative in variation in the Hawai- 
ijans measured, and they may be regarded as a fairly homogeneous 
group racially. 


NON-MENSURABLE, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 
THE HAWAIIANS 


Several of the physical traits of the Hawaiians which are not 
susceptible of exact mechanical measurement were classified 
roughly and entered on the schedules. The descriptive terms used 
are explained on p. 94. Such traits included hair color, hair form, 
eye color, skin color, nose form, incidence of the Mongolian (epi- 
canthic) fold and of prognathism. For a portion of the subjects, 
descriptions of eyebrows, brow ridges, forehead, malars, face shape, 
lips, chin, teeth and ears were also obtained, but the records are 
thought to be too scattered and difficult of classification to con- 
tribute materially to this description of the Hawaiians. 

I. Hair color (Table 17). Although few grades of hair color 
were distinguished, this characteristic apparently varies but little 
among the one hundred and fifty-four subjects observed. Ninety- 
one per cent of these Hawaiians had black hair. About six per 


120 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


TABLE 17. DISTRIBUTION OF HAIR CouLoR IN PuRE HAWAIIANS 


Red- 
Color White | dish | Brown | #2"* | Black | pe g| Total 
Brown 
Prequeney..@ cu. ste, Gee 1 2 1 9 141 3 157 


cent of the subjects had dark brown hair, while only three or less 
than two per cent had hair of a lighter shade. Of these two had 
distinctly reddish hair. This variation is qualitatively different 
from the normal black or dark brown pigmentation, and the red 
haired subjects probably represent a recessive blonde type intro- 
duced originally by a remote cross with a European race. These 
subjects were typically Hawaiian in their other traits, and there 
is no reason for questioning their immediate pedigrees. Such red- 
dish brown hair is occasionally seen on persons regarded as pure 
Hawaiian and designated by the native name Ehu. There is no 
reason to believe that their blood is not as pure as that of the 
darker haired natives and they should be included in a description 
of the Hawaiian type. 

II. Hair form (Table 18). It is in hair form that the Hawaiians 
depart most widely from the uniformity which one might expect 


TABLE 18. DISTRIBUTION OF Hatr ForM IN PURE HAWAIIANS 


Form Straight} Wavy | Curly | Frizzy | Crinkly | Kinky eat a Total 
Frequency ...... 13 92 44 3 2 1 2 157 


in an island race. The predominant forms are plainly wavy and 
curly, themselves quite variable and intergrading with each other. 
To the general wavy-curly type may probably be assigned also the 
kind of straight smooth hair which occurs among the Hawaiians. 
The Hawaiian straight hair is very similar in texture to the wavy 
type and continuous intergradations connect the two types. It 
is not to be confused with the heavier, straighter and coarser 
Mongolian type of straight hair. All except six of the one hun- 
dred and fifty-five subjects fell in one of these three related classi- 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 121 


fications, the most frequent hair type being wavy (fifty-nine per 
cent). Three individuals were reported as having frizzy, two 
crinkly, and one kinky hair — variations in hair form which are 
in the opposite direction from straight. These forms, on account 
of their rarity and the greater change they involve in hair form, 
are much less likely to be normal to the Hawaiian type. All six 
were females, and it is possible that in some of the subjects arti- 
ficial deformation of the hair may have disguised its true form. 
One “‘ kinky ” subject departed seriously from the average in arm 
length, while the observer noted of one of the girls described as 
“‘erinkly ”’ haired that she ‘‘ looked like a Negro.”’ The observer, 
in absence of other evidence to the contrary, accepted them as 
Hawaiians, and although it is likely that one or two may have some 
negro blood, we have included them in the Hawaiian series. Their 
omission would cause no significant change in the averages of the 
physical characteristics of Hawaiian females. 

III. Eye color (Table 19). Eye color, like hair color, varied but 
little among the one hundred and fifty-six subjects observed. The 


TABLE 19. DistRIBUTION OF EyE Cotor In PurRE HAWAIIANS 




















Brown- : D Very 
Color Ticks is mee Brown ay Dark Roo Total 
Blue Brown 
Frequency...... alte 1 18 67 61 7 2 157 


1 Recorded as ‘‘almost blue.” 


eyes of all except two were some shade of brown, the classes medium 
and dark brown including seventy-eight per cent of the whole group. 
The individual recorded as “ brownish blue ”’ was typically Ha- 
walian in other respects and was entered as “ Khu.” This case 
may be interpreted as a further instance of segregation of the reces- 
sive blonde Ehu type, this time with respect to eye color only, 
since the hair was dark brown. The other exception described as 
‘almost blue ”’ in eye color may be a quantitative variant from 
the brown type or a segregate from an earlier cross. In other 
traits he agreed with the Hawaiian type. 

IV. Skin color (Table 20). The descriptions of the skin color 
of these Hawaiians are admittedly approximate and, in the only 


122 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


TABLE 20. DESCRIPTION OF SKIN COLOR 














von Luschan’s Broca’s Scale 1 
Grade No. Scale Frequency Cade Frequency 
Male Female 

Lis oan hoe Sn eee 1 1 
12) Has Se ee eee 1 1 
185 Sa Wer: eee tee tee ay 2 
VAD eacran rt te comin eee ee 1 3 
lbs TARO ae ea Oa ee 2 3 
1G 3h) Sete et eke cee 2 
WEE EO Teed et ene tis 2 
183.06 aie eee ee eee 1 

LOG wats take gy aoe ee 1 

Totalicn fick) oe eee és 14 




















1 The grades of Broca’s scale have been placed opposite similar grades on von Luschan’s 
scales. The colors in the two scales are not of the same quality, and it is unwise to combine 
observations recorded on the two scales. 


form in which it was practicable to collect such data, not suscepti- 
ble of quantitative treatment. 
' The 1916 series of fifty-three females and twenty-two males were 
described in terms of Broca’s scale as reprinted by Hrdlicka (1904). 
Most of the subjects had skin colors corresponding to Broca’s 
numbers 24, 47, and 23. The modal grade for both sexes was 24. 
Only three females had skin colors darker than 23 (grades 25 and 
40). The males had in general somewhat darker skins than thé © 
females. Twelve or nearly half of them were described by the 
grades 25, 39, and 40. In 1920, von Luschan’s better scale was used, 
and although only twenty subjects (six males and fourteen females) 
were described on this scale, the results agreed well with the earlier 
descriptions. On von Luschan’s scale, the skin colors varied from 
grade 11 to grade 19, the modal grades being 14 and 15 which, 
aside from the yellow or red component of the color, are about 
equivalent to Broca’s grade 24. The average skin color of the 
Hawaiians is apparently a light yellowish or reddish brown — of 
about the tone of café au lait. 

V. Nose form (Table 21). In addition to the data yielded by 
measurements of the nose, descriptive notes were made of the 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 123 


TABLE 21. DeEscription oF Nose Form — PurE HAwWaAItAns 


Root Bridge Septum 








Normal| De- Straight Con- Con- | Straight] Down 




















pressed cave vex 
ROS Ci oh 46 27 43 14 15 40 2 
Penmics ..>s.2:.| 11 20 15 9 5 14 1 





general form of the nose with especial reference to root, bridge, 
and septum. The records were made in the terms used in Table 
21. The root of the nose was found to be more frequently normal 
than depressed in the males; but in two-thirds of the females the 
root was depressed. The form of the bridge was straight in about 
half the subjects in both sexes. Departures from the straight- 
bridged type were as frequently in the direction of convexity as 
toward the concave type. The septum was either straight or 
directed slightly upward, while in only three subjects did it slope 
downward. 

VI. Incidence of the Mongolian (epicanthic) fold. Out of one 
hundred and fifty-eight subjects observed, only four were found 
to exhibit this peculiarity of the eyelids, and in these subjects it 
was described as slight. Although it is somewhat difficult to dis- 
tinguish this trait in the reduced form in which it occasionally ap- 
pears, we fee) fairly safe in saying that the typical Mongolian fold 
does not occur among the Hawaiians. 

VII. Incidence of Prognathism. Observations of twenty-two 
adult males and fourteen adult females with special reference to 
prognathism indicate it is absent in the majority of the Hawaiians 
observed. Slight prognathism was noted in two males and four 
females. 

VIII. Other traits. Observations of other traits listed on the 
schedule (p. 93) were made on a portion of the subjects observed 
in 1916. A brief summary of the more important of these is given 
below. Only adult subjects are included. 


124 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


(a) Brow ridges: 


Classification Males Females 
Absent io.a a)ek ek aa ae eee Pee 14 
Presents 0s 1 cae kaw ta he eee eee 2 re 
Ne) bid 0) Sane a CPM ES 2 Se eee. f 3 
Prominent) 2% 5..00 eee eee ee 11 

Total 26) ee aalece ik ee 20 1% 


(b) Thickness of lips: 


Classification Males Females 
Medium ov) ou oe oe ee ee 11 9 
Thick... 66-0 2 2 See ee ee 9 8 

Totaloc ei tn fee eet Be eee ee 20 i 


(c) Strength as measured by grip of hand (recorded in kilograms). 
Right Hand Left Hand 























Males Females Males Females 

Number isaac oe ees 58 30 19 We 

AVerages sh on wetce etree 53.8 29.8 52.6 26.3 
(d) Forehead: 

Height Breadth Slope 
Class Males | Females Class Males | Females Class Males | Females 
LOW 1 1 | Medium| 15 15 | Vertical me 10 
Medium | 10 11. | Broad 5 2 | Slightly 9 4 
receding 
Hiphe. 9 5 aay e .. | Receding 10 3 
Low f 

LOtaLA AA cau ih ae 20 17, wipag 20 17 





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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HAWAIIANS 


The general picture of the average Hawaiian which may be 
reconstructed from the foregoing description portrays a tall heavy 
individual, inclined to be stout; with limbs and trunk of medium 
length. The head is large, and both absolutely and relatively 
short. It is generally brachycephalic in shape. The face is both 
broad and high with prominent cheek bones, and its shape ap- 


125 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 


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126 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


proaches the square rather than the oval. The forehead is of 
medium height or higher, and in the male is generally receding. 
Brow ridges are present and frequently prominent. The nose is 
farge and relatively broad and flat, although the root is more fre- 
quently of the straight European type than depressed as in negroid 
or Mongoloid races. The lips are but little thicker than among 
European races, and the teeth are usually very good. Prognathism 
is absent, and the chin is slightly receding. 

The skin is light brown with a creamy or yellowish tinge. The 
hair is black, wavy or curly and generally abundant. The eyes 
are brown, large and straight as among Europeans. 

I. Homogeneity of Type. As in all the races of men so far 
measured, all of these general traits as well as the various dimen- 
sions and proportions of the body and its parts are very variable. 
A comparison of one measure of variability for a number of traits 
of these Hawaiians with the corresponding traits for several other 
groups is given below (Table 23). 


TABLE 23. COMPARISON OF THE COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION IN 
HAWAIIANS AND OTHER COMPARABLE Groups. MALES 








Hawaiian Samoan Sioux South Chinese 

Number 22 ae are ae ' 69-74 67-70 540 64 
Statirene Goes ae ee 2.92 3.05 o.20 3.43 
Headilengint ass ace ce tes 4.89 2.98 3.16 3.58 
Head breadtic ao «ance 3.80 2.88 3.47 3.91 
Bizygomatic diameter ...... 5.88 3.59 3.65 3.24 
Nasion-menton height ...... 5.88 5.00 5.12 4.69 
Nose hewitt « nee te 7.69 6.09 6.75 Bee 
Nose- breadth #400 wee oe 6.32 5.91 8.07 
Cephaheindexs..9.5.97 3.80 4.34 4.03 oon 
Facisl index. 45. oe see 5.91 5.42 5.78 5.70 
Nasal index Sn a2 2e eee 9.32 7.96 10.25 


The Hawaiian series appears to be the most variable of all of 
the racial groups compared. It exceeds the Samoan group in 
variability of all except two of the traits given, viz., stature and 
cephalic index. It exceeds the Sioux series in all except four of 
the traits given; viz., stature, cephalic index, nose breadth and 
nasal index. It is more variable than the South Chinese series in 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 127 


head length, face breadth and height, cephalic index and facial in- 
dex. The actual amount by which the Hawaiian exceeds the other 
series given is not great, except in the case of face breadth and not 
all of the differences in variability among these races are statisti- 
cally significant. The excess in variability of the Hawaiians, while 
not great, is general and calls for some explanation. 

Some of the reasons for the greater variability of the Hawaiians 
may be inferred from a comparison of the Samoans and Hawaiians. 
These two groups are strictly comparable in numbers, in race, in 
time and in technique of measurement. Both are from island 
populations which because of the greater amount of inbreeding 
brought about by isolation, are usually rather conservative in their 
physical traits. The chief difference between the Samoan and 
Hawaiian series is in their relative amount of recent contact with 
foreign stocks. The Samoans are to a greater degree unaffected 
by European or Oriental immigration and by the more complex 
social and economic conditions induced by the influx of foreign 
cultures. Their environment is less variable, and since many of 
the absolute dimensions of the body depend to some extent on the 
degree of growth attained, and thence on such environmental varia- 
tions as nourishment, health, etc., it may be that their greater 
conservatism in physical traits is in part due to this fact. Greater 
social, economic and physical inequalities have been brought 
about in Hawaii by the introduction of more of the machinery of 
civilization, and this greater variability in the environment may 
induce a greater variability in the less stable physical character- 
istics. Wherever industrial methods are present, there is always 
the possibility of occupational variation in physical traits. In addi- 
tion to this general cause of variation it has been already noted that 
our sample has been drawn chiefly from a few groups such as steve- 
dores and factory workers and is probably more variable in size 
characters than a strictly random sample. 

Contact with foreign stocks likewise produces the possibility 
of actual physical mixture between races, and such mixture leads 
generally to increased variability. We have tried to exclude from 
our Hawaiian series all progeny of recent crosses between Hawaiians 
and other races. We may, however, have included subjects de- 
scended from remoter crosses, and may thereby have obtained 
variabilities in excess of those normal to the race. 


128 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


The values of the dispersion measures of the various traits are 
not however entirely reliable as guides in estimating homogeneity 
of type. They are greatly increased not only by environmental 
variation but by the presence of a few individuals which depart 
widely from the average, or by the departure of the distribution 
from the normal. The distribution itself, and the range of varia- 
tion are better guides to homogeneity. Distinct evidences of 
bimodality are absent in the distributions of most of the Hawaiian 
traits. Even in such traits as head length, head breadth, face 
height and face breadth, in which the variability of the Hawaiians 
is greater than that of other groups, we find no evidence of the 
presence of more than one chief type. And since the proportions 
between these parts, especially in the case of the length-breadth 
index of the head, are relatively less variable, and show fairly 
normal and regular distributions, we may ascribe much of the 
variability in the dimensions to the degree of growth attained 
rather than to lack of homogeneity. The Hawaiian group as a 
whole then, while somewhat more variable than we might expect 
a pure island race to be, has none the less a unity which argues 
a large amount of antecedent pure breeding. 

II. Racial Affinities. The Hawaiians have long been recognized 
as belonging to the Polynesian race, which is widely distributed in 
the Pacific area. Their nearest relatives are undoubtedly the 
peoples of the Marquesas and Samoan Islands. Their physical 
characteristics agree in general with those of the Samoans de- 
scribed by Sullivan. These differences are however to be noted: 
although of the same height as the Hawaiians, the Samoans exceed 
them somewhat in nearly all of the other physical dimensions 
recorded; the Samoan head appears to be both longer and broader 
than the Hawaiian, while in shape it is relatively narrower; the 
proportion of very short headed (index 85 and over) individuals 
is much higher among the Hawaiians; the Samoan face is larger 
and both absolutely and relatively broader than the Hawaiian; 
the nose of the Hawaiians, while smaller, is relatively broader than 
that of the Samoans; the frequency of straight hair is much higher 
among the Samoans than among the Hawaiians, although the 
general type of hair is similar. The differences between these 
groups are small and the resemblances many. The present data 
indicate that both belong to one large racial group — the Poly- 
nesian. 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 129 


We have made no attempt to deduce the affinities or origins 
of this large group from the present data. Sullivan has tentatively 
classified the various traits of the Samoans as resembling the 
European, Negroid or Mongoloid races of man, and concludes that 
their physical traits resemble most closely those of Mongoloid 
peoples. In so far as the Hawaiians resemble the Samoans, and 
in so far as Sullivan’s racial classification of traits is cogent, the 
same might be inferred from our data. Resemblances, however, 
as Sullivan rightly notes, do not always represent closeness of 
relationship, but may arise by independent variation, or may be 
produced by other than inherent causes. Another kind of data, 
in addition to careful description of individual and group character- 
istics, is needed for explanations of racial origins or affinities. Such 
data should consist of descriptions of the behavior of the characters 
of a race, such as the Polynesian, when crossed with several of its 
putative parent races such as the Mongoloid or the European. 
When truly heritable traits (and these are the only traits of evo- 
lutionary significance) can be observed in a number of genera- 
tions, the amount of similarity or divergence between races may 
be inferred from the characters and variability of the hybrids. 
We have obtained a small amount of such evidence for hybrids 
between Hawaiians as one parent race and Chinese and Europeans 
as the other. Further discussion of the racial relationships of the 
Hawaiians and Polynesians may then be deferred until such evi- 
dence is presented. 


130 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


PART II 


DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHER RACES IN HAWAII AND OF 
DESCENDANTS FROM CROSSES OF HAWAIIANS 
WITH OTHER RACES 


CHINESE AND CHINESE-HAWAIIANS 


From the standpoint of the student of race mixture, the most in- 
teresting cross which is taking place in Hawaii is that between the 
native Hawaiians and the Chinese. In numbers of hybrids pro- 
duced, and in the general effect on the character of the Hawaiian 
population, this cross is not so important as that between Ha- 
waiians and Europeans. The interest and scientific value of the 
Hawalian-Chinese cross inheres in the first place in the relative 
purity of the races involved. The past history and present char- 
acteristics of both the Hawaiians and the Chinese indicate that 
both races have undergone a period of relatively pure breeding in 
the immediate past, during which time racial traits have become 
well defined and less variable than in more widespread and mobile 
races. The source of the Chinese participating in this mixture is 
distinctly local, since most of the Chinese in Hawaii have been 
imported as coolies from Canton ‘Province and belong to the rela- 
tively conservative South Chinese type. 

Secondly, this cross has taken place in recent times, the first 
Chinese to reach Hawaii in significant numbers having arrived in 
the decade 1870-80. The cross has been made practically always 
in one direction, i.e. Chinese male by Hawaiian female. In ap- 
pearance, mentality, temperament and customs, the Chinese and 
Hawaiians present what appear to be well marked contrasts. There 
seems to be little or no social disapproval of marriages between - 
these races; and both of the parent races and the hybrids live on 
what is practically a social parity. For these reasons the results 
of the cross should be simpler and offer fewer difficulties in inter- 
pretation than crosses involving Hawaiians and members of other 
races. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTH CHINESE 


The description of the South Chinese which follows is based on 
our observations of twenty pure South Chinese living in and near 


131 


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132 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


Honolulu, and on Hagen’s (1889) measurements of 64 adult male 
coolies from Canton, observed at Deli on the northeast coast of 
Sumatra. ‘The Chinese of Hagen’s series were born in China, while 
all except two of our series were born in Hawaii of pure Chinese 
parentage, the parents having in most cases been born in China. 
The original measurements of our series are given in Appendix 
Table II. Hagen’s data are given in full in his memoir (21). We 
have calculated from both of these series of measurements the 
averages of the principal dimensions and proportions of the body, 
and these are given in Table 24 following. The observations on 
females are too few to be of use except in descriptions of non- 
mensurable traits. 

In general the measurements of South Chinese males from 
Hawaii agree quite well with those obtained by Hagen in Sumatra. 
The Chinese measured by us were slightly taller, and longer headed 
and had slightly higher faces than those observed by Hagen, but 
the differences are small and generally insignificant. The two 
series together give as good an indication of the dimensions and 
proportions of the South Chinese as can be obtained at present. 

The non-mensurable traits of our series of South Chinese are 
described in Table 25. The hair color is prevailingly black and 
uniformly straight and coarse; the eyes are brown, generally 
oblique and the Mongolian fold is present and marked in more than 
half of the subjects. The frequency of the fold is probably higher 
than that shown by our data, for in the first subjects observed no 
specific mention was made of this trait. Hagen noted the eye fold 
in 80 per cent of the South Chinese observed by him; and, while it 
varies in degree it is probably present in most of the South Chinese. 
The skin color is very similar to that of the Hawaiians. The root 
of the nose is generally depressed, the bridge straight, and the 
septum directed upwards. The forehead is of medium height and 
breadth and frequently receding. Prognathism is generally ab- 
sent, only two subjects having been recorded as slightly prog- 
nathous. 


CoMPARISON OF HAWAIIANS AND CHINESE 


From the information provided above, a general comparison of 
the native Hawaiians and South Chinese can be made. The 
Hawaiians are taller and heavier than the Chinese; although the 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 133 


TABLE 25. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF THE 
SoutH CHINESE 


PIA COLL cs ok 2. Black 19, Dark Brown 1 
(mvs (iat es nee Straight 20 
ye CONOI se so. ss Brown 10, Black 2, Dark Brown 5, Light Brown 2 
POM TOME Min. aio". « Present 10 
Absent 1 8 of : 
BRIM Olot Fs... | Broca’s Grade 23 5 3 


Broca’s Grade 24 3 - 
Broca’s Grade 47 3 - 
Nose form Root, depressed 17 
straight 3 
Bridge, straight 14 
concave 6 
Septum, straight 5 
up 15 
183 ete ee ae, Thin 2 
Medium 13 
Thick 1 
Prognathism....... Absent 14 
Slight 2 
Forehead.......... Height Breadth Slope 
high 5 medium 13 straight 9 
medium 8 broad 3 receding 7 
low 3 
Brow ridges....... Absent 8 
Slight 5 
Prominent 3 


1 Five recorded as oblique eyelids 


tie onde atraivht eyelids \ presence or absence of fold not established by record. 


proportions of the body are very similar in the two races. The 
Chinese appear to have slightly longer trunks; the difference in 
- the sitting height index, although small, is statistically significant. 
The Hawaiians are predominantly brachycephalic, while the 
Chinese are frequently dolicho- or mesocephalic. The Chinese 
head is probably somewhat smaller than the Hawaiian; the princi- 
pal difference being in absolute breadth of head,in which Hagen’s 
measurements and our own agree. The faces of the Hawaiians 
and Chinese are quite similar in size and shape, the averages of the 
absolute dimensions being nearly identical. In nose shape the two 
races are slightly different, the Hawaiians having relatively and 
absolutely broader noses than the Chinese, although the difference 


134 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


is not large. The nose of the Chinese is typically depressed at the 
root, while in the Hawaiians it is more frequently of the European 
straight type. The septum of the nose is directed upward in the 
Chinese, but is generally straight or horizontal in the Hawaiians. 
The lips of the Hawaiians are somewhat thicker than those of the 
Chinese. One clearly marked difference is in the shape of the eye 
and in the presence or absence of the Mongolian fold. In the Ha- 
walians the eye is full, round and straight and the eye fold is ab- 
sent; in the Chinese the eye is typically narrower, is set obliquely 
and the eye fold is generally present. The two races are also 
sharply distinguished by the form of the hair, which is uniformly 
straight and coarse in the Chinese, wavy and finer in the Hawaiians. 
The brow ridges which are generally present and frequently promi- 
nent in the Hawaiians are as a rule absent or slight in the Chinese. 
In the color of the hair, skin and eyes, in the incidence of prog- 
nathism and shape of the forehead, the two races are very similar. 
To the casual observer the Chinese and Hawaiians appear to be 
quite different and are readily differentiated. When the differ- 
ences are measured and reduced to anthropometric terms, however, 
they are fewer than one would expect. They are chiefly concerned 
with general body size, a slightly different head shape, hair form, 
shape of the nose and the character of the eye. We may now turn 
to the behavior of these traits in inheritance, and formulate a 
description of the hybrids arising from crosses of Chinese and 
Hawaiians. 


First Hyprip (F;) GENERATION FROM HAWAIIAN X CHINESE 


Our data on this generation consist of descriptions of twenty- 
eight progeny of matings of pure Chinese males, with pure Ha- 
walian females. Of these hybrids four were mature males and ten 
were immature males ranging in age from fifteen to nineteen years. 
Of the fourteen females all except three were mature. In averag- 
ing the measurements of this generation only mature subjects 
have been used, with the exception that three males of age twenty 
have been considered as having attained adult growth in all traits 
except stature and its separate elements. Even with this addition, 
our description of the mensurable traits of the hybrids rests on only 
seven males and eleven females. The averages of males and females 
of this generation are contained in Table 26, while the descriptions 
of non-mensurable traits are summarized in Table 27. 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 


135 


TABLE 26. AVERAGES OF THE MENSURABLE CHARACTERS OF ADULT 
F, Hyprips BETWEEN CHINESE Mates AND HAWAIIAN FEMALES 














Males Females 
Average Range Average Range 

Number of subjects . . 4-7 4—7 11 11 
mtatire, cM. ....,... 165.6 157-176 157.54+1.17 | 148-169 
Sitting height, cm. .. 88.6 82-93 84.80 +0.63 79-90 
Sitting height index, % 53.5 52.1-55.1 53.83 +0.32 | 52.3-57.8 
Ht. of acromion, cm. . 134.9 127-144 128.14+1.00 | 121-1388 
Arm length, cm. ..... 73.0 67-77 68.79 =0.71 64-76 
Index of arm length, % 44.1 42.5-46.5 43.67+0.35 | 42.1-45.0 
Head length, mm. ...|179.9+2.8| 165-200 168.86 +1.43 | 157-175 
Head breadth, mm. ..|152.3+1.5| 141-162 144.73+1.35 | 1338-153 
Cephalic index, % ...| 84.5+0.8] 77.5-93.3 85.96 +0.67 | 79.6—-89.5 
Bizygomatic diam. 

PUA ees a SR a 138.7+1.8| 129-146 131.18+1.30 | 124-144 
Nasion-menton height 

BU ee ie tones ss 119.4+2.3| 109-138 109.27 + 1.26 99-117 
Facial index, %...... 86.1=1.2} 81.1-94.5 83.80 +£0.77 | 78.5-92.1 
Nasal height, mm. . 5240-7 48-58 47.55 +0.57 43-51 
Nasal breadth, mm...| 39.4+0.5 36-43 37.91 +0.42 36-42 
Nasal index, %......| 75.2+1.6| 65.5-82.7 79.73 +1.10 | 70.6—93.0 


MENSURABLE TRAITS 


An examination of Table 26 indicates immediately that only 
tentative conclusions can be reached regarding the average ap- 
pearance of the hybrids in respect to most of the traits measured. 
The errors of the averages are so high, due to the smallness of the 
samples, that only very large differences from one of the parent 
races could be regarded as significant. And as we learned from the 
comparison of the pure Hawaiians and Chinese, such large differ- 
ences, even between the parent races, are apparent only in stature 
and its segments. Concerning this dimension in the male hybrids, 
no statements can be made, for our average is based on but four 
individuals, two of which were as tall as the Hawaiian average, 
and two of which were shorter than the Chinese average. The 
height of the female hybrids is 157 cm. compared with 162 cm. 
for pure Hawaiian females. The height of South Chinese females 
is probably about 150 cm. (Hagen), although three Chinese females 


136 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


TABLE 27. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF THE F, 
HYBRIDS BETWEEN CHINESE MALES AND HAawatlAN FEMALES 


Hair color. .e ee Black 26, Dark Brown 2 
Hairiorm 2 oe Straight 17, Slightly wavy 3, Wavy 6, Curly 1, Wiry 1 
Hye colons? ines Dark Brown 11, Brown 15, Light Brown 1 
Evestolde:aryee. a. Present 11 (4 “slight’’) 
Absent 9 ! 
No record 8 rot 
DKIN Color etree Broca’s Grade 23 4 
Broca’s Grade 24 — 
Broca’s Grade 40 1 
Broca’s Grade 47 1 
von Luschan’s Grades 8-1 


ob 1 GC 140 


Q 
me 40 


COnnemanNw bd bw 


Nose f{0rm......55.05 Root, depressed 9 
straight 5 
Bridge, straight 10 
concave 1 
convex 1 
norecord 2 
Septum, straight 3 
up ial 
hips 8y re eeon ee Medium 8, thick 5 F 
Prognathism males . Absent 10, marked 1 
Brow ridges males Absent 4, slight 3, marked 1 
Forehead. o0e he insufficient data 


1 In these cases the angle of the eye was observed (5 oblique, 4 straight) but the presence or 
absence of the fold was not specifically noted. The absence of the fold in these subjects is 
probable but not established. 


in our series averaged 153 cm. in height. The hybrids appear, 
therefore, to be intermediate between the parents in stature, a 
result which has usually been observed in crosses between animals 
and plants differing in size. Sitting height is likewise intermediate 
between the parental dimensions, although in both males and 
females, the relative length of trunk appears to be closer to the 
Chinese than to the Hawaiian average. The difference in the sit- 
ting height index between Hawaiian and hybrid females is, how- 
ever, small (.70+.36 per cent) and probably not statistically 
significant. An examination of the range of variation in this pro- 
portion in the Hawaiians and hybrids shows that while the individ- 
ual Hawaiian females varied from 50.5 to 56.9 in this index, the 
range of the hybrid females extends from 52.8 to 57.8. There 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 137 


were relatively fewer short-trunked individuals among the hybrids. 
It is doubtful whether or not this represents a tendency toward 
dominance of the longer relative trunk of the Chinese. It is more 
probably accounted for by the shorter stature of the hybrids; since, 
as Hrdli¢ka has shown, shorter individuals have usually a some- 
what higher index of sitting height. The slight differences found 
are probably due to the fundamental differences in general body 
size between the two parent races and the hybrids. 

In acromic height and arm length the hybrids are likewise inter- 
mediate between the parent races, while the relative length of arm 
is somewhat less in the hybrid females than in the Hawaiian fe- 
males. This difference is only twice as large as its error; and, since 
the parent races were very similar in this respect, it is probably 
due to sampling. 

In the dimensions of the head and face the differences between 
the parent races were not marked, although the proportions of the 
head were somewhat different in that the head of the Chinese was 
relatively longer than the head of the Hawaiians. This racial dif- 
ference in head shape is statistically significant. 

The head length of the hybrids is somewhat less than that of 
either parent race. The difference in head length between the 
Hawaiian and hybrid females is 10.43+1.73 mm., while in the 
males the difference (2.5 mm.) although insignificant, is in the 
same direction. 

In breadth of head the parent races did not differ greatly and the 
difference between the hybrids and Hawaiians is less than the dif- 
ference in length of head. For the females, the difference in head 
breadth between the Hawaiians and hybrids is 5.53+1.51 mm. 

The greatest difference noted is in head shape as measured by 
the cephalic index. The hybrids appear to have relatively shorter 
heads (a higher index) than either parent race. These differences 
are as follows: 


TABLE 28. DiFFERENCE IN CEPHALIC INDEX 





Difference 
E difference 
Groups compared Males Females Males Females 
F, —Chinese..... 5.40 = 1.06 ‘S! 


F,—Hawaiian ... 1.06+ .84 1.80+= .81 13 2 


138 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


Lack of data precludes an exact comparison of F; with Chinese 
females, but we may assume the difference to be similar to that 
which exists between the males of the two groups. The most 
significant differences shown are between the hybrids and the 
Chinese. The hybrids have relatively shorter heads than the 
Chinese. The differences in head shape between the hybrids and 
Hawaiians are not statistically significant, although in both sexes 
the hybrids have relatively shorter heads. 

The distribution of head form in the parent races and hybrids is 
compared in Table 29. The chief differences between the parent 
races are the relatively larger proportion of dolicho- and meso- 
cephalic individuals among the Chinese and the greater frequency 
of brachycephaly among the Hawaiians. The hybrids plainly re- 
semble the Hawaiians in this respect. 


TABLE 29. CoMPARISON OF HEAD SHAPE IN HAWAIIANS, CHINESE 
AND THEIR Hyprips (MALES AND FEMALES COMBINED) 





Per cent Per cent Per cent 

Number dolicho- meso- brachy- 

cephalic cephalic cephalic 
Hawaiian Meni eee 108 zal 9.8 88.0 
(Shittese ieee ee 20 15.0 20.0 65.0 
Wis on eae or ee 18 ae 11.7 88.3 


Considered in both of these ways the evidence indicates that the 
cross of the short headed Hawaiians with the slightly longer headed 
Chinese produces a distinctly brachycephalic average type. ‘This 
alone might be interpreted, as similar results have been, by assum- 
ing dominance of shorter over longer headedness. But there is 
some possibility, which our evidence cannot make a certainty, that 
the hybrids are actually shorter headed than the shorter headed 
parent. This difference, if real, is probably due to the smaller 
bodily dimensions of the hybrids, which fail to attain the full 
height or size of the Hawaiian parents. ‘There is some evidence 
(22) that all parts of the body are influenced by general growth or 
size factors, and it is known that within the same racial group the 
individuals of shorter stature have also shorter heads. Head 
length, as Boas (23 and 24) has shown, is more dependent than is 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 139 


head breadth on total stature. It may be possible to interpret such 
results as we have observed in terms of such general growth factors, 
without referring the differences to heritable factors affecting shape 
of the head. It is improbable that the reality or inheritance of 
such shape factors can be established from evidence such as ours 
on crosses involving differences in general body size. 

In the size and shape of the face the Chinese and Hawaiians were 
found to be very similar. The hybrids appear to have somewhat 
smaller faces than the Hawaiians and in the female hybrids the 
face is relatively slightly lower and broader than in the Hawaiian 
females. The differences in this respect are not significant; and, 
while the cross may have altered somewhat the parental facial 
proportions, the results are not conclusive. 

In the size and shape of the nose there were slight differences be- 
tween the parents, the Hawaiian nose being somewhat larger and 
broader than the Chinese. The nose of the F; hybrids in both 
sexes resembles more closely the Chinese type both in size and 
shape. In our sample, the hybrids had relatively narrower noses 
than the Chinese, although in view of the variability of this char- 
acter and the large errors of our averages this cannot be regarded 
as significant. 

In general, few definite conclusions can be drawn from the com- 
parison of the quantitative characters of Hawaiians, Chinese and 
hybrids. In size the hybrids appear to be intermediate, while in 
the proportions of the body they are nearer to the Chinese type. 
In head shape the resemblance is plainly toward the Hawaiian 
parent, while the face and nose resemble the Chinese. There is 
some indication that the hybrids may depart from the parental 
description even in traits in which the parents do not differ, and 
that the relations of parts may be altered by the cross of parents 
differing chiefly in general body size. 


Non-MENSURABLE TRAITS 


Several differences exist between the Hawaiians and Chinese in 
non-mensurable qualitative traits. The appearance of the hybrids 
in these respects is described in Table 27. 

Hair Form. The greatest difference found was in hair form, the 
Hawaiians having wavy or curly (rarely straight) hair of the 
European type, the Chinese without exception having coarse 


140 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


straight hair of the Mongoloid type. The significant feature of 
the F, generation is that it is not uniform in respect to hair form. 
Seventeen or sixty per cent of the hybrids had straight hair; while 
of the remaining eleven individuals, ten had wavy or curly hair 
of the Hawaiian type while one had wiry hair. The genetic rela- 
tionship between the straight Mongoloid type of hair and the wavy 
European type has not been established, although the evidence of 
Bean (25) and of other observers makes it appear probable that 
the Mongoloid type behaves as a dominant trait in inheritance. 
Our evidence partially corroborates this assumption in that the 
majority of the hybrids had straight hair of the Mongoloid type. 
Whether the lack of uniformity of the first generation in respect 
to hair form is due to variable or incomplete dominance of Mongo- 
loid straight over wavy and curly hair, or to misinformation con- 
cerning the pedigrees of the wavy and curly haired F, subjects, 
cannot be established from the present evidence. The single wiry 
haired F, subject was a female, whose other physical characteris- 
tics did not depart widely from the means of the F, generation. 
This exceptional hair form may have been due to artificial defor- 
mation or to otherwise unexpressed negro blood in the ancestry. 

Epicanthic Fold. The Hawaiians and Chinese were found to 
differ sharply in the presence or absence of the fold of the upper 
eyelid, known as the Mongolian or epicanthic fold. This fold was 
observed to be present in eleven of the F; hybrids. Of the remain- 
ing seventeen, eight were not observed for this trait, while in nine 
the entries on the schedule indicate that the eye was examined but 
do not reveal whether the fold was present or absent. It was prob- 
ably absent or slight, and was hence not recorded. The presence 
of the fold is certainly established in a majority of the F; hybrids, 
and it is therefore inherited as a dominant trait. 

Nose Form. In nose form the hybrids apparently resemble the 
Chinese more than the Hawaiians. The root is more frequently 
depressed, as in the Chinese, than straight, as in the Hawaiians; 
although both types of root are found, even among pure Hawaiians. 
The bridge of the nose in typically straight in the male hybrids, 
and concave in females as in both parent races. The septum of the 
hybrids is generally directed upwards, which is the typical de- 
scription of the Chinese nose, whereas in Hawaiians the septum is 
usually straight or horizontal. 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 141 


The lips of the hybrids are probably intermediate in thickness 
between the Hawaiian and Chinese types, although both parent 
races have lips which vary about a medium thickness. In other 
traits the differences between parents and hybrids are unimportant. 


GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE First Hyprip GENERATION 


1. Homogeneity. The results of crossing animals and plants 
differing in quantitative characters have shown that in general the 
offspring of a cross between two pure (inbred) types are no more 
variable in respect to a given character than the more variable of 
the parent types. The homogeneity of the F; generation may under 
certain conditions be used as an indication of the relative purity 
of the parental types. In the present case, paucity of numbers 
precludes an exact comparison of the variability of F, and parental 
types, but the range and dispersion measures of the mensurable 
traits of the first generation compare favorably with those of the 
pure Chinese. In a few traits (e.g. hair form) the F; generation is 
more variable than should be expected if the race containing the 
assumed dominant trait (Chinese) were entirely pure. This, and 
a certain part of the variability of other traits in the first genera- 
tion, may perhaps be due to some misinformation concerning pedi- 
grees and the inclusion in the F; generation of a few subjects of 
later generations in which segregation is taking place, resulting in 
increased variability. 

2. Resemblances to Parents. In general the F; generation is 
intermediate in character between the parent races. Such a result 
is usual in crosses between types differing in quantitative traits 
such as size. Wherever the hybrids resemble one parent more 
than the other, the resemblance more often appears to be toward 
the Chinese type, as in relative trunk length, hair form, and facial 
features (eye, nose, etc.). In one trait, i.e. head form, the hybrids 
while nearer to the Hawaiian type depart to some extent from both 
parental averages. This may be due to a combination of factors 
from both parents, producing a new or a phylogenetically older 
character, a result not without parallel in experimental animal 
breeding (recombinations, reversions, etc.). 


142 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


THe Backcross GENERATIONS 


Critical data on the inheritance of the traits which differentiate 
races can only be obtained when some description of the behavior 
of these traits in the germ cells of the hybrids is available. In the 
present case, we have very little data on the results of matings 
between two F; hybrids. We have more data on the results of 
matings between F, hybrids and one of the pure parent races. 
The most frequent mating of this kind is between F; hybrids and 
pure Hawaiians. The raw data on the progeny of such matings 
are given in Appendix Table III. Summaries of the averages of 
mensurable traits are given in Table 30, and of descriptive traits 
in Table 31. 


PROGENY FROM Matincs oF F; witH HAWAIIANS 


The total number of subjects of this generation observed was 
twenty-eight. Of these only nine were mature, three males and six 
females. The averages of the mensurable traits are, therefore, of 


TABLE 30. AVERAGES OF THE MENSURABLE CHARACTERS OF THE 
PROGENY OF Matincs or F; Hysprips with Purrt HAWAIIANS 
(Backcross GENERATION) 





Males Females 
Average Range Average Range 

Number of subjects .... 3 3 6 6 
Peatire, Ci sep eee 167.6 163-173 158.18+1.43 | 153-167 
Sitting height, cm. ..... 85.9 85.3-86.6 84.77 =0.58 | 83.0-88.9 
Sitting height index, %.| 51.2 49,3-53.1 53.60 £0.19 | 52.5-54.6 
Height of acromion, em..| 136.5 133-141 128.33£1.31 | 122-137 
Are, length cia. oe 76.0 74,2-77.8 70.18 +1.05 | 67.0-78.1 
Index of arm length, % 45.3 45.0-45.6 44.37+0.29 | 43.5-46.6 
Head length, mm. .....| 186.3 178-195 171.67 =2.21 159-183 
Head breadth, mm. . 152.3 147-163 143.33 +£1.61 | 135-151 
Cephalic index, %..... 81.7 75.38-91.6 83.49 +0.93 | 76.5-86.3 
Bizygomatic diam., mm. | 147.7 142-154 133.83 +1.60 | 126-143 
Nasion-menton height, 

yas5 CU ce bee ee Sots 122.0 116-126 109.50+1.15 | 103-116 
Facial index, 9.8 oaen 82.6 75.3-87.3 81.82 +1.24 | 76.2-89.2 
Nasal height, mm. ..... 53.0 52-55 48.00 +0.94 42-52 
Nasal breadth, mm.....| 44.0 43-46 40.00 + 0.35 38-42 
Nasal index; 9%) 2.2... 83.0 78.2-88.4 83.63 £1.17 | 78.4-90.5 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 143 


TABLE 31. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF THE 
PRoGENY oF Matines or F; Hysrins with Pure HAwaArIANs 


Tair COlOfiw se. + Black 24, Dark Brown 3, Red Brown 1 
Protests... Straight 9, Wavy 11, Curly 7, Kinky 1 
Hivergolor. 200... . Brown 12, Dark brown 14, Light Brown 2 
Kyefold eis s.5 .. Present 14 (4 “slight’’) 


Absent 12 (presence or absence of fold not established: 
10 straight, 2 oblique) 
No record 2 
o 
Bkih GOlOr. Se cess. . Broca’s Grade 23 
Broca’s Grade 24 
Broca’s Grade 29 
Broca’s Grade 40 
Broca’s Grade 46 
Broca’s Grade 47 


1 

1 

1 

ef 

Nose form. ....... Root, depressed 9 

straight 3 

Bridge, straight 6 

concave 2 

convex 1 

norecord 3 

Septum, straight 38 

up 9 

no record — 

i 2 a ae Thick 19, medium 4 
Prognathism....... Absent 11, slight 3 

Brow ridges........ Absent 9, slight 1 


1La~annrnwmortl wil wa 4 


Re OF | 


little value. As far as the meager data go they indicate a greater 
resemblance between this generation and the pure Hawaiians than 
between the F, and the Hawaiians, although in general size these 
subjects, who are three-fourths Hawaiian, are still intermediate 
between the Chinese and Hawaiians. The head form of the sub- 
jects in this generation is likewise intermediate between the head 
form of the parent races, indicating that the increase in the cephalic 
index noted in F; was probably due to combinations of factors 
which take place principally in the F; generation. Nose form in 
this generation also shows a return to the broader Hawaiian type. 

The description of the non-mensurable traits of this generation, 
although based on twenty-eight subjects, provides but little data 
on the inheritance of separate traits. The principal non-mensu- 


144 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


rable differences between the parent races are in hair form and the 
presence or absence of the eye fold. 

Hair form. Of the twenty-eight subjects, nine were recorded as 
having straight hair; while eighteen had wavy or curly hair. The 
hair form of one subject was described as ‘‘ almost kinky.”’ Both 
parents of this subject (No. 11) were observed together with seven 
sibs. There was no evidence of kinky hair or other negroid traits 
in any of these relatives, and it is probable that the aberrant hair 
form is in this case an extreme variant of the curly type. The 
significant points to examine in these data are (1) whether there is 
evidence of segregation of the straight and wavy-curly types of 
hair, (2) the numerical relations of these types. 

Unfortunately it is not possible to state whether the straight hair 
encountered in these hybrids was of the coarse Mongoloid type or 
of the finer straight type which is occasionally found in pure Ha- 
wallans. Photographs of some of the straight haired subjects give 
some evidence that the Mongoloid type occurs even in subjects 
which are three quarters Hawaiian. Better evidence on the segre- 
gation of these hair types is found in one family of which both 
parents and eight children were observed. The mother in this case 
was a straight haired Fj; the father was a curly-haired Hawaiian. 
Of the eight children, five had curly (one ‘‘ almost kinky ”’) hair, 
while three had straight hair. The absence of the intermediate 
hair form — wavy —in this family strengthens the supposition 
that these differences in hair form depend on Mendelian factors 
which segregate cleanly. 

The ratio of wavy to straight haired subjects in this generation 
has little significance, since in most cases the hair form of the in- 
dividual F, parents is not known; and we have already shown that 
the F; generation was not uniform in hair type. It is probable, 
however, that the frequency of straight hair is higher in the back- 
cross generation than in the pure Hawaiians, and this may be as- 
sumed to be due to dominant factors for straight hair introduced 
by the Chinese grandparents. In the single family observed, the 
ratio of curly to straight haired children is close to that expected 
on the assumption that one dominant factor differentiates curly 
from straight. 

Eye fold. Our records show that the eye fold appears in half of 
the subjects of the backcross generation. The occurrence of this 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 145 


typically Chinese trait in individuals which have only one-fourth 
Chinese blood is very good evidence that the epicanthic fold de- 
pends on dominant factors, and confirms a similar conclusion drawn 
from the data on the F; generation. This trait apparently, in some 
cases, segregates from the hybrid in its original form, while in a 
few cases it is recorded as “‘slight’’ in the backcross subjects, so 
that its expression may be altered by other factors. Evidence that 
the alternative trait (absence of the fold) segregates as a recessive 
is found in the family of eight children (Nos. 6-15) descended from 
the mating of an F,; female by pure Hawaiian male. In this case 
both parents lacked the fold and it does not appear in any of the 
children. 

The numerical ratio in which the eye fold segregates appears on 
casual inspection to be the ratio expected if it depended on a single 
dominant factor. Thus it appeared in fourteen of the backcross 
subjects and was not noted in fourteen (absence of notation prob- 
ably indicates absence of the trait, since it is a prominent feature 
when present). This coincides exactly with the ratio expected 
when individuals heterozygous in a single factor are crossed to the 
recessive form. We know, however, that the data are not sufficient 
to establish such a conclusion, since (1) the character is not ex- 
pressed in all pure Chinese, (2) the F; generation is not uniform, 
(3) the number of observations of backcross individuals is small. 
We are content to establish the dominance and segregation of this 
trait and to point to it as offering a favorable opportunity for 
making a factorial analysis of a typically ‘ racial ”’ trait. 

The other descriptive traits are too variable, the differences 
between the parents too poorly defined and the data too meager 
to justify conclusions. 


OTHER HAWAIIAN-CHINESE MIXTURES 


The remaining subjects observed by us fall into groups which are 
too small for quantitative treatment. The F.2 generation consists 
in our data of but six subjects, all females, of which only three are 
mature. The measurements and observations of these subjects 
are given in Appendix Table III. Inspection of these data and 
comparison with the observations of the pure races and other 
hybrids indicate the presence of Chinese traits — presence of 
Mongolian fold, straight hair, ete. —in combination with some 


146 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


traits more characteristic of the Hawaiians — tall stature (subject 
No. 160), brachycephaly (No. 250). No satisfactory estimate of 
the variability or recombinations of quantitative traits can be 
made from the few descriptions at hand. 

The generation arising from the backcross of F', by Chinese con- 
sists of two males and three females including one mature indi- 
vidual. On account of the paucity of numbers and immaturity of 
the subjects they cannot be compared with the parent races in 
respect to quantitative traits. In three of them the Mongolian fold 
was present, while in one it was absent and in one the trait was not 
recorded. In spite of the fact that each subject had one pure 
Chinese parent, two of them were found not to have the straight 
coarse hair which is typical of the Chinese and which we found was 
probably inherited as a dominant. The curly-haired subjects in 
this generation, like those in the first hybrid generation, may have 
risen from a cross other than that specified on their schedules, or 
their presence may indicate incomplete dominance of straight over 
curly hair. Except for dominant Hawaiian traits and a somewhat 
greater variability, this generation should resemble the first hybrid 
generation, and such in general is the case. 

The measurements of eight other subjects recorded on the 
schedules as “‘ part Chinese ’”’ are given in Appendix Table ITI 
under the heading ‘‘ Other Hawaiian-Chinese Mixtures.’”’? These 
are nearly all immature subjects whose schedules indicate the 
presence of both Hawaiian and Chinese ancestors in their pedi- 
grees. The degree of mixture is unknown. They form a rather 
variable group in which both Chinese and Hawaiian traits appear. 
The evidences of Chinese admixture are unmistakable since the 
Mongolian eye-fold appears in every subject of the group. In two 
cases this is combined with wavy hair indicating that these sub- 
jects are probably the offspring of F,; parents or parents of later 
generations. Several are taller than pure Chinese, while the dis- 
tribution of head shapes is similar to that found among Hawaiians. 

Discussion. The brief descriptions of the parent races involved 
in the crosses described, and the appearance of the hybrids pro- 
duced, make it evident that the chief differences which distinguish 
the Hawaiians and Chinese are due to heritable factors which 
unite temporarily and later separate and reappear in various com- 
binations. Dominance is in general absent, as has been found gen- 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 147 


erally to be the case with quantitative traits. Where one racial 
trait appears to exclude or nearly to exclude its alternative, the 
more dominant trait appears to have been derived from the Chinese 
parent. The evidences of Chinese blood in the hybrids are through- 
out more easily and certainly distinguishable than the Hawaiian 
traits. Segregation of several distinctly racial traits unquestion- 
ably occurs as well as a degree of independent recombination of 
separate traits, so that while many Hawaiian-Chinese hybrids ap- 
pear to represent ‘‘ blends ”’ of the parental race traits, many are 
more accurately described as ‘‘mosaics,’’ showing traits of both 
races in almost typical form. 

In contrast to the few differences which were noted between these 
races, are the many resemblances. Many such resemblances may 
be merely fortuitous and due to the similar expression of different 
hereditary factors. But if such were the case here we should ex- 
pect to find in the hybrids many new or reversionary traits. Ex- 
cept in the case of head shape, such traits if present in the hybrids 
were not prominent enough to be noted and we may infer a fairly 
close genetic affinity between the Hawaiians and Chinese. 

Both races were very variable in most of their characters, al- 
though not more so than the average ‘‘ pure’”’ race. The hybrids 
also were quite variable, and there is no question that the vari- 
ability of the generations subsequent to the F; has been increased 
by the cross. However, this variability is thought not to exceed 
that of the parent types by an amount sufficient to indicate that 
the parent races differ in an extremely large number of genetic 
factors. It is easy to overemphasize the differences in physical 
features, because of the relative prominence of one or a few traits. 
For example, the Mongolian fold and the shape of the eye give a 
Mongolian cast to the face of many individuals of quite diverse 
origins. Yet the really important distinction to be made between 
races is the number, rather than the magnitude of the expression, 
of the inherited factors in which they differ. And we have seen that 
such a prominent trait as the eye-fold probably depends on rela- 
tively few hereditary differences; while it is evident that a slight 
difference in some quantitative trait such as stature or head shape 
may involve a large number of factor differences. 

Our data are probably not adequate to establish the presence 
or absence of heterosis or hybrid vigor, a phenomenon which fre- 


148 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


quently accompanies the crossing of distinct races. As far as our 
data go, however, no marked increase in the size of any physical 
trait is in evidence. The vigor resulting from crossing varieties 
which differ in many factors, however, is often expressed in physio- 
logical traits such as fertility, rate of growth and others, for which 
we have no data in the present instance. 

On the other hand, we encountered no evidence of disturbance 
of the normal course of development as a result of the cross. From 
the evidence on physical features we may say that the act of cross- 
ing has neither increased nor decreased the vigor, average size or 
fitness of the resulting hybrids. The impression gained by the ob- 
server was that the hybrids arising from the cross of Hawaiians 
and the Chinese were normal persons, frequently combining the 
more valuable personal characteristics of both parent types. Per- 
sons of this descent are apparently not handicapped, either phys- 
ically or mentally, in comparison with either parent type. 


WHITE RACES AND WHITE-HAWAIIAN HYBRIDS 


THE white races have been represented in the population of Hawaii, 
in greater or less numbers, for about a century and a half. It is 
probable that race mixture involving Europeans and Hawaiians 
has been taking place to some extent during all this time. European 
immigration into Hawaii did not attain any considerable propor- 
tions, however, until about fifty years ago, when deliberate at- 
tempts to colonize the islands with European laborers were begun. 
This movement began with the transportation of Portuguese labor- 
ers from Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands in 1878, followed by 
a considerable immigration from these Portuguese possessions, and 
later by the transportation of laborers from Porto Rico, beginning 
in‘1900. At the same time a steady but numerically less important 
immigration of North Europeans and Americans began. It is thus 
only from the last quarter of the nineteenth century that race mix- 
ture between Europeans and Hawaiians has taken place in any 
important degree. 

In 1919, it was estimated that Europeans constituted about 23 
per cent of the population of the islands. This fraction consisted of 
about 12 per cent of North European peoples, British, Scandina- 
vians, Germans, Americans etc., over 9 per cent of Portuguese, 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 149 


chiefly from the Cape Verde Islands, and frequently showing evi- 
dence of negro admixture, and about 2 per cent of Porto Ricans, 
largely Spanish in origin. However, the numerical proportion of 
these various kinds of Europeans does not represent the relative 
contribution of the white races to the racial mixtures which are 
taking place in Hawaii, for it has been found that the frequency of 
matings between Europeans and Hawaiians is quite out of propor- 
tion to the relative size of the European population. Thus, of all 
hybrids between Hawaiians and members of other races which were 
observed for the purposes of this study, 57 per cent involved a mem- 
ber of one of the European races. From McCaughey’s (1) study of 
the frequency of mixed marriages in Hawaii and from Hoffman’s 
(3) analysis of the vital statistics of Honolulu, it may be concluded 
that at least half of the racial crosses in which the Hawaiians have 
participated, have been with members of the white races. This 
means that numerically the Hawalian-white mixture is at present 
the most important one in Hawaii. 

As biological material, the Hawaiian-European mixture, al- 
though of great social importance, is not as suitable for study as the 
Hawatian-Chinese cross. The European parent types are not homo- 
geneous, but extremely variable, including, as is shown below, 
such mixed or racially composite types as “‘ Americans”’ and north 
and south Europeans, which in their progress toward Hawaii have 
frequently mingled their blood with that of American Indian, negro 
and other peoples. A second disadvantage for the student of race 
mixture is that the differences between Europeans and Hawaiians 
are not so clearly marked as those which distinguish Chinese and 
Hawaiians, and it is therefore more difficult to follow these differ- 
ences in inheritance. A somewhat greater amount of data are avail- 
able for this cross and some fairly constant differences have ap- 
peared, so that while general conclusions cannot be drawn, the de- 
scription of the Hawaiian-European hybrids is not without interest. 


EUROPEAN PARENT TYPES 


It is obviously impossible to give an exact description of the 
characters of the white parent type such as we attempted for the 
Chinese parent type. Two quite different Kuropean types are re- 
presented, each of which is itself heterogeneous. The North Euro- 
pean groups consist chiefly of the racially composite British and 


150 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


white Americans with many Scandinavians, and Germans. The 
South European groups are chiefly Portuguese or Spanish in origin, 
but had been brought to Hawaii from colonized islands in which 
considerable mixture with negro and native types had already taken 
place. In our analysis we have been chiefly concerned with the 
hybrids from the North European groups, and have dealt separ- 
ately in all cases with the descendants of North and of South Euro- 
pean types. It is impractical, from the data at hand, to make any 
further subdivisions of the white parent stocks. It must therefore 
be realized at the outset that the white parents of the Hawaiian 
hybrids are a complex racial group, even when restricted to a North 
European origin. 

We shall then follow the rule of describing each Hawaiian-white 
hybrid group (Fi, F, and backcrosses), and of comparing the char- 
acters found with those of the pure Hawaiians as described in Part 
I, and with the probable condition of each trait in the average 
North European, a procedure which obviously can lead to only ap- 
proximate statements. For comparative European material we 
have drawn chiefly from the measurements of Davenport (26) on 
soldiers of known race in the U. 8. Army 1917-19, those of Goring 
(27) on English prisoners, and the racial means as collated by 
Martin (13). These references have been used in forming an esti- 
mate of an average North European type. The best comparative 
data from a mixed Polynesian-white group are those of Shapiro 
(28) on the inhabitants of Norfolk Island, which are known to be 
the descendants, through inbreeding, of hybrids between Tahitians 
and English. 

The number of subjects of mixed Hawaiian and white parentage 
is larger than in the case of the Chinese-Hawaiians. We have ob- 
servations on a total of 147 hybrids involving Hawaiian and white 
European ancestry, distributed as follows: F; — 36; F, — 30; back- 
crosses 60; other mixtures 21. In about 25 of these, the white as- 
cendant was Portuguese or Spanish, in the remaining cases the 
white ascendant was from North Europe or America. 

In comparing these hybrids with the parent types we have classi- 
fied all subjects into adult and immature groups, and treated the 
sexes separately as in Part I, while, in addition, the descendants of 
North Europeans have been separated from the descendants of 
South Europeans. This has resulted in many small distributions. 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 151 


The means and variation constants of these small series have been 
calculated from the ungrouped frequencies. The constants for in- 
dices or proportions have been calculated from their arrays, since it 
is impossible to use a method involving a knowledge of correlation 
for such small series. This produces a slightly higher average value 
than the method used in Part I (97). 


COMPARISON OF HAWAIIANS AND WHITES 


At the outset we are faced with the question: In what specific 
traits do the Hawaiians differ from the races of Europe? In gross 
appearance the Hawaiian is readily distinguishable from the aver- 
age European. The darker skin, hair and eyes of the Hawaiian, his 
broader nose, slightly thicker lips, large square face, and brachyce- 
phalic head distinguish him at once from the blonde Nordic type of 
northern Europe, while his greater stature, his head-form, bodily 
dimensions, corpulence, and heavy face set him apart from those 
Southern European types from which he differs less markedly in 
pigmentation. 

When one attempts to specify the chief differences between the 
Hawaiian and the European, one finds that the most noticeable and 
constant differences, apart from skin color, relate to the general 
build or fullness of the body, the shape and size of the face as a 
whole and of the nose in particular. The Hawaiians are stouter 
than the Europeans, that is, they carry more flesh in proportion to 
their height. The face of the Hawaiian is square, fleshy and mas- 
sive, while the typical North European face is oval and slighter. A 
comparison of the actual facial measurements of the two races 
shows that the Hawaiians only slightly exceed such a representative 
European type as the English in facial breadth and height. The 
measurements available describe only the shape of the upper part of 
the face whereas it is the greater size of the lower face and the 
greater amount of flesh which distinguish the Hawaiians. The 
difference in nose form is of a similar sort, although less constant, 
the Hawaiians having in general larger and broader noses than the 
Europeans. The nose of the North European has a higher, narrower 
root than is found among the Hawaiians. 

In head form, the greatest difference is in absolute length of head, 
in which the North Europeans greatly exceed the Hawaiians. Head 
breadth is not greatly different in the two races, the Hawaiians 


152 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


having only slightly broader heads. In average head shape the dif- 
ference is well marked, the North European having generally a 
dolicho- or mesocephalic head, while the Hawaiians are predomi- 
nantly brachycephalic. Throughout, the chief differences between 
Hawaiians and Europeans appear to be those of degree rather than 
of kind, and are in general less marked than those which differenti- 
ate Hawaiians and Chinese. 


First Hysrip (Fi) GENERATION FROM HawalIAN X WHITE 


We have observations of 36 subjects whose ancestry is given as: 
mother Hawaiian, father white (German, American etc.). In all 
except one case the non-Hawaiian parent was the father. This 
agrees with other data from marriage statistics which show that 
most persons of mixed blood in Hawaii originate in matings of 
Hawaiian women with men of other races. Of these F; subjects, 21 
are adults (14 males and 7 females). Again subdividing on the 
basis of racial origin of the white parent, we find 10 adult male and 
6 adult female offspring of North European X Hawaiian. The de- 
scription of the mensurable physical traits of the hybrids is based on 
the average of the measurements taken on these 16 subjects. The 
hybrids resulting from crosses of Hawaiians with South Europeans 
(Portuguese and Spanish) are fewer in number, comprising only 4 
adult males and 4 immature subjects. Descriptions of the non- 
mensurable traits rest on observations of 26 Hawaiian-North Euro- 
pean hybrids of all ages and of 8 Hawalian-South European hy- 
brids. | 

The most reliable information on the characters of the hybrids is 
to be obtained from the adult males of the Hawaiian-North Euro- 
pean crosses. The nativities of the fathers of this group are Ameri- 
can 38, German 2, Scotch 3, Canadian 1, unspecified North Euro- 
pean 1. The averages and variation constants of the chief measure- 
ments of these subjects are given in Table 32. These averages are 
to be compared with the corresponding averages for adult male 
Hawaiians (Table 22, p. 125), and with a general average for the 
trait in North European peoples. The latter can be obtained only 
by estimation and has relatively little value. 

Body Size. In stature it is probable that the North European 
parents, if they are a random sample of the North European type, 
average slightly taller (about 172 cm.) than the pure Hawaiians 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 153 


(171.3 cm.). The North European hybrids average 173.5 cm., and, 
although the probable error of the average is so large that it cannot 
be established as significantly different from either the Hawaiian or 
European average, it is probable that the hybrids are slightly taller 
than the Hawaiians. The Tahitian-white hybrids of Norfolk Island 
also appear to be taller than the Polynesian parent type. These 
hybrids have the high average stature of 174 cm., whereas the Eng- 
lish parents probably averaged not more than 172 cm. and the 
Tahitian parents about 171. Other length dimensions of the body 
(acromial height, sitting height, arm length), are likewise slightly 
greater in the hybrids than in the Hawaiians and are probably in- 
termediate in size between the parent types. In the proportions of 
the body there is very little difference between the Hawaiians, 
North Europeans and hybrids. In the index of sitting height, for 
example, the probable European value is about 52.4 per cent, 
Hawaiian 52.6, hybrid 52.3. 

_ There exists, however, one unquestionable difference in body 
build between the European and Hawaiian peoples. This is the 
difference in body weight, and especially in relative corpulence as 
measured by the ratio of height to weight. The Hawaiians are 


heavy (average weight 170 pounds for males) and have a very 


high height-weight index, i. e. 7 = [ “=S5>° ] = 1.53. The aver- 


age weight of North Europeans is much less, probably about 150 
pounds (the average weight of white drafted soldiers in the U. 8. 
Army 1917 was 144 pounds) while they are less corpulent, with an 
average height-weight index of about 1.30 — 1.85. The hybrids of 
our sample exceed both parent races both in weight (male average 
194 pounds) and in the height-weight index (1.68). The Norfolk 
Island hybrids are also characterized by a relatively great weight 
(169 pounds). The weights of both the Hawaiian and Norfolk sub- 
jects include clothes and are probably accurate only to within 5 or 
10 pounds, yet both sets of data indicate large size as a characteris- 
tic of the Polynesian-white mixtures. Before concluding that such 
corpulence as characterizes the Hawaiians is a heritable, dominant - 
trait in racial crosses we must consider (1) that our sample of hy- 
brids is very small and may not be representative of the average Fi 
type; (2) that body build is undoubtedly conditioned in part by 
environmental factors such as nutrition, occupation, and the rela- 


154 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


tive ease or difficulty of getting a living, and that the corpulence of 
both the hybrids and the Hawaiians may be due to the action of a 
common environment rather than to heredity; (8) that the large 
size of the hybrids, since they exceed even the heavy Hawaiians, 
may be due to hybrid vigor or heterosis. These possibilities may be 
discussed more profitably after the evidence from more hybrids of 
later generations 1s presented. 

Head. One of the chief differences between the Hawaiians and 
North Europeans is in absolute and relative length of the head. 
The Hawaiians have characteristically short heads (average 182 
mm.) while the head of the average North European is longer (190 
mm. or more; 192 for Goring’s English prisoners and 198 for von 
Luschan’s English scientists). In breadth there is little difference 
between the Hawaiians (152 mm.) and the North Europeans (about 
150 mm.). These dimensions produce a typically brachycephalic 
head in the Hawaiians, while the North Europeans are predomi- 
nantly dolichocephalic or mesocephalic. The absolute size of the 
hybrid head is greater in both dimensions than that of the Ha- 
waiians. The hybrids, like the Hawaiians, are predominantly bra- 
chycephalic, with a mean index of about 83, which is the same as 
the Hawaiian index. This condition holds not only for the adult 
male hybrids now under discussion but for all of the F; hybrids. In 
a total of 36 hybrids only 1 case of dolichocephaly was found (index 
75),‘1 subject was mesocephalic (index 79) while the remaining 34 
were brachycephalic with indices resembling those of the Ha- 
waiians. It is evident that the F; hybrids resemble the more bra- 
chycephalic of the parent races. Our Hawaiian-white hybrids differ 
in this respect from the Norfolk hybrids, since the latter have on 
the average absolutely long heads (average 195.6 mm.) while their 
heads are no broader than those of our F individuals (Norfolk 
breadth 155.5 mm.). The resulting head shape of the Norfolk Is-— 
landers is mesocephalic (index 79.5) and the series includes many 
with dolichocephalic heads. The average head dimensions and the 
distribution of head shape among the Norfolk Islanders have un- 
doubtedly been affected by the reappearance through segregation 
of the recessive European type (long head, low index), and are 
thence not strictly comparable with our F; type. 

In the present case the inheritance of head shape is probably 
uncomplicated by differences in general body size, since the Hawaii- 


155 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 


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156 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


ans, the North Europeans and their hybrids are similar in stature. 
This cross is quite different from the Hawaiian-Chinese cross, in 
which the parent races differed in general size as well as in the 
dimensions of the head. That the present cross between brachy- 
cephalic and dolicho- or meso-cephalic types of equal height 
produces almost exclusively brachycephalic offspring, is good evi- 
dence that the factors which produce or influence brachycephaly 
are dominant in inheritance. This result has been observed so 
frequently that the dominance of brachycephaly may be regarded 
as established. 

The action of the factors affecting head shape is, however, ob- 
scure. In the cross of Hawaiians and Chinese, brachycephaly in F; 
appeared to be due to the absolutely shorter heads of the hybrids. 
In the present case this is not so, since the length of the F head is 
significantly longer (by 6.4 = 2.0 mm.) than the Hawaiian head. 
It is also broader (by 4.6 + 1.9 mm.) than the Hawaiian head. 
Here both dimensions of the Hawaiian head have been equally 
affected by the cross with North Europeans, and one cannot say 
that the dominance of brachycephaly is due chiefly to the domi- 
nance of either one of the dimensions. 

Face. In facial dimensions the chief difference between the 
Hawaiuans and Europeans is in the breadth of the face. The bizy- 
gomatic diameter of the face is about 135-7 in North Europeans, 
(137.5 mm.) for the English males measured by Goring (27, 66), 
while the Hawaiians of our sample averaged about 140 mm. How- 
ever, Sullivan (11a) found a facial width somewhat higher than this 
(144.5 mm.) in his large sample of pure Hawaiians, and other Poly- 
nesian groups have in general rather wider faces than we have found 
in the Hawaiians. In face width the F, hybrids undoubtedly re- 
semble the Polynesian rather than the European type. This is evi- 
dent from the average bizygomatic diameter of F, (145.4 mm.), and 
it is especially noticeable on the living subject and in photographs. 
The Norfolk hybrids, on the other hand, have a bizygomatic diame- 
ter (140.9 mm.) which resembles the European rather than the 
Polynesian average. The length of the face (nasion-menton height) 
is similar in Europeans and Hawaiians. In Goring’s English males, 
for example, the measurement is about 124 mm.; in the Hawaiian 
males of our sample it is about 123 mm.; while in Sullivan’s sample 
of Hawaiian males it is a little greater than 125 mm. In the hybrid 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 157 


males, facial length is 125 mm., not significantly different from 
either parent race. The same face height is characteristic of the 
Norfolk Islanders (125.3 mm.). The index describing the shape of 
the face is probably slightly different in Hawaiians and Europeans, 
the faces of the latter being somewhat more elongated. In Goring’s 
English males the length of the face is about 90 per cent of the 
breadth; in our Hawaiians this index is about 88, while in Sullivan’s 
series it is about 87. In the F; hybrids, the facial index is about 86. 
While the hybrid index is undoubtedly nearer to that of the Ha- 
wallans, the differences are small, and due chiefly to variation in 
the absolute breadth of the face, which appears to be the more im- 
portant distinguishing facial measurement. The facial index of the 
Norfolk Island hybrids (88.9) is more like that of the English than 
that of the Polynesian parent type, chiefly due to the narrower 
bizygomatic diameter. Since we have already found that brachy- _ 
cephaly appears to be dominant in crosses, it is not surprising that 
the broader Hawaiian face should also seem to be dominant, for 
facial and cephalic shapes are of course positively correlated and 
may be expected to depend in part on the same or similar factors. 
In the shape of the lower face, and in amount of flesh, the F, hy- 
brids appear also to bear closer resemblance to the Hawaiian than - 
to the European parent type. 

Nose. In the absolute measurements and shape index of the 
nose there is a well marked difference between Hawaiians and the 
average European, although nasal dimensions are extremely varia- 
ble in both parental and hybrid types. Using only data from male 
subjects for comparison, the height measurements are found to be 
similar in Hawaiians (53.6 mm.), English (52-53 mm. Goring), and 
hybrids (53.8 mm.). The breadth of the lower part of the nostrils 
is, however, plainly different in Hawaiians (44.2 mm.) and English 
(85-386 mm.), while the hybrids closely resemble the Hawaiians. 
The nasal index of the hybrids is nearly the same (80.8) as that of 
the Hawaiians (82.9), and unquestionably higher than that of the 
average North European (65-70). Here again the size and espe- 
cially the breadth of the Hawaiian type appears to be dominant. In 
this respect the Norfolk hybrids again show greater similarity to 
the English type since in mean nasal height (55.3 mm.), breadth 
(37.6 mm.) and index (68), they approach very closely to the Euro- 
pean measurements and depart markedly both from our Hawaiians 


158 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


and F; hybrids. Comparison of the descriptions of the various parts 
of the nose indicates plainly the partial dominance of the higher 
nasal root of the European type as shown below. 


TABLE 33. FREQUENCY OF VARIOUS TyPES oF NoszE FoRM IN PER CENT 


Roor BRIDGE SEPTUM 
eee Neca Pee aS 











nnn EERE EEE 
De- Con- Con- j 
High Straight pressed Straight cave vex Straight Down Up 


73 Haw. Males . .0 63 37 60 19 21 53 3 42 
12 F; Males ....42 50 2 66 17 ye 53. Ce eens 


The only other significant difference shown by this comparison is 
the lower frequency among the hybrids of the upward direction of 
the nasal septum which occurs in nearly half of the Hawaiians but 
in less than a fifth of the hybrids. This trait, which is associated 
with the broader nose of the Hawaiians, has been nearly extin- 
guished by the cross with European types. The nose of the hybrids 
as a whole then represents a new type different in some respects 
from that of either parent, for it combines the size and breadth of 
the Hawaiian type with the high nasal root and straight septum of 
the European. 

Hair. (Table 34.) The hair color of the European parents of 
the hybrids of our sample is problematical. It is safe to say that in 


TABLE 34. DeEscrIPTION OF THE NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF 26 F, 
Hysprivos BETWEEN HAWAIIAN FEMALES AND NorTH EvRoPEAN MALES 


Haiy'cootie,. «07a Black 12, Dark brown 8, Brown 5, Reddish brown 1 
Hair tori eee Wavy 17, Curly 4, Straight 3, Frizzy 1. 
Eye colory a weer. Brown 12, Light brown 10, Dark brown 2, Hazel 1, Blue 1 
Eye fold..........Not observed 
DLT WOMT ese eeok ee Broca’s grades 23 and 24 
of Q 
Nose form ys ea.- Root high 5 3 
straight 6 8 
depressed 1 2 
Bridge straight 8 10 
concave 2 3 
convex 2 x 
Septum straight 10 8 
up 2 5 
Lips Thick 4, Medium 7 
Prognathismay yee Absent 8 


Brow ridges.... ..Prominent 2, Slight 4, Absent 2 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 159 


average shade it is somewhat lighter than the hair color of the Ha- 
wailians which is prevailingly black. The hybrids likewise have 
generally black or dark brown hair, although the average shade is 
probably lighter than among pure Hawaiians. One hybrid (no. 221) 
had reddish brown hair of the Ehu type, and it is known that the 
mother of this subject was a Red Hawaiian. The hair color of the 
white father was not known, but he was probably blonde or carried 
a recessive blondness. The pedigree of this girl was somewhat 
doubtful and full credence cannot be placed in the record. It is 
probably not an exception to the general statement that no light 
haired hybrids result from matings of dark-haired Hawaiians and 
Europeans. 

The chief difference between the parent races in hair form is prob- 
ably in the higher incidence of straight hair among the European 
parents. The Hawaiians have predominantly wavy or curly hair. 
The distribution of hair form among the hybrids is almost the same 
as among the Hawaiians, indicating probably partial dominance of 
the wavy or curly type. One F, female (no. 232) had hair with 
narrow close waves, designated as frizzy. Her nine children by a 
wavy-haired F; male (no. 128) consisted of four wavy-haired, three 
curly-haired and one straight-haired (one not noted), indicating 
that frizzy hair is probably a form of curly, possibly artificially de- 
formed. Three examples of this hair type were found among pure 
Hawaiians, all females. 

Eye Color. (Table 34.) The eye colors found among Hawaii- 
ans were chiefly brown and dark brown, although two anomalous 
individuals were noted with light colored brownish blue eyes. We 
have no data on the frequency of light brown and blue eyes among 
the European parent types, although the average shade of eye color 
was probably lighter than among the Hawaiians. The hybrids are 
intermediate in this respect, the eye color of most of them being 
brown and light brown (84 per cent). Two (8 per cent) had darker 
eyes, and a similar number had lighter eyes (one hazel- and one 
blue). One of these subjects (no. 149) was similar in other traits 
to the other hybrids, while the other (no. 417) was tall with a 
narrow head, long face, and narrow nose, characters which are not 
entirely compatible with the parentage as given, and indicate that 
she probably belonged to a later generation from the cross of 
Hawaiian and white. These subjects are anomalous in the same 


160 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


sense as the two Hawaiians with light eyes, and no further evi- 
dence on these exceptions is available in the data. 

Skin Color. (Table 34.) Our evidence on skin color, unfortu- 
nately, is not very satisfactory, and this is one of the most notice- 
able traits in which the Hawaiians and Europeans differ. There are 
available skin color records of twelve hybrids, determined by com- 
parison with Broca’s scale. The skin color of three of these corre- 
sponded with grade 24, while 9 were of grade 23 or slightly lighter. 
These were the two modal grades for the 75 Hawaiians recorded 
on this scale, and this fact would indicate a close resemblance of 
the hybrids to the average Hawaiian skin color. However, this 
conclusion is not confirmed by the few comparisons made with the 
better scale of von Luschan. Of the 3 hybrids recorded on this 
scale 2 were lighter (grades 7 and 10) than any of the pure Hawaii- 
ans. The skin color of the hybrids is unquestionably darker than 
that of the average European, but probably not so dark as the pure 
Hawaiian type. 

Other Traits. A few descriptive observations of some other 
traits were made on some of the hybrids observed in 1916. These 
are given in Table 34, but are too few and scattering to add signifi- 
cantly to the hybrid description. A general summary of the char- 
acters of the hybrids will follow the descriptions of later generations 
from this cross. 


THE SECOND GENERATION 


Twenty-eight subjects were found which gave their parentage as 
“father 4 white, $ Hawaiian; mother 4 white, 4 Hawaiian.” As- 
suming that both parents were F, hybrids (and in many cases it 
was established that this was so), these individuals should consti- 
tute the second generation from the cross of Hawaiian by North 
European, although some of them probably belong to later genera- 
tions. It isin this group that the segregation of traits in which the 
parent types differed should be most apparent. Only seven of this 
group were mature when measured, 3 males and 4 females, and the 
group as a whole is too small to yield reliable averages or variation 
constants of mensurable traits. However, the group includes one 
family of 9 children, all immature, resulting from the marriage of 
2 F, hybrids (male no. 128 * female no. 132). A complete series of 
observations is available for each of the parents and the children. 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 161 


By reference to these individual observations (Appendix Table IV) 
we shall attempt to determine the extent of segregation and re- 
combination of single traits, without attempting any description of 
this generation as a whole. On account of the usually great varia- 
bility of hybrid generations beyond the first, such a description 
‘would have to rest on a much larger material than is available at 
present. 

In respect to stature and general body size, the data are too few 
and the parental differences too slight to make comparisons profit- 
able. In head size and shape, however, the parent races were prob- 
ably different, and for shape characters some of the immature F» 
subjects may be included, thereby increasing the numbers of ob- 
servations. Among the 24 subjects of age 11 and over, the cephalic 
index ranges from 72 to 88 as compared with a range or 74 to 92 for 
the Hawaiians. The distribution of head form among the F»2 sub- 
jects as compared with the pure Hawaiians is as follows: 


TABLE 35. CEpPHALIC INDEX 


—74.9 75 —79.9 80- 
Per cent Per cent Per cent 
No. dolichocephalic mesocephalic brachycephalic 
Hawaiian male and female... 168 pat 9.8 88. 
F, male and female......... 36 es as, 94.4 
Pemaie and female......... 26 fee 34.61 Oak 


There are relatively more dolicho- and meso-cephalic heads 
among the F; hybrids than among either the Hawaiians or the F; 
hybrids. This probably indicates the segregation of recessive fac- 
tors for longer headedness introduced by the white ancestors.! 
There is, however, no such evidence of the segregation of head shape 
in the F, family observed. Both of the F; parents had a cephalic 
index of 81, while the indices of the children of age 6 and over 
range from 76 to 81. Although still immature they have, on the 
average, slightly longer heads than their parents; but are grouped 
closely together and do not resemble a segregating distribution. 
Such a condition would arise if the particular white and Hawaiian 
parents involved did not differ-much in head form. 

1 The per cent of dolicho- and mesocephalic in F2 as shown in the table is probably too low, 


since some of the subjects included were immature, and the index may be expected to fall some- 
what with increasing age. 


162 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


The shape of the face varies in the F; subjects through the same 
range as in the Hawaiians, without distinct evidence of segregation. 
In nose form, however, there is an evident tendency for a return to 
the narrower condition characteristic of the European. The nasal 
index in the pure Hawaiians ranged from 68-102 (average 83 for 
males); in F; the range was from 62-98 (average 81 for males) 
while in F, only 4 individuals of age 15 and over exceed the F; aver- 
age. The frequency of narrow noses of index 74 and under is un- 
questionably higher in the F, than in either the F, or Hawaiian 
distributions. This is apparently due to the segregation of recessive 
factors governing the absolute width of the nostrils, since nasal 
height is about the same in parent types, F; and F2, and is un- 
affected by the cross. Descriptions of nasal root, bridge and septum 
are available for only 7 F2 males of age 15 and over. In 6 of these 
the nasal root was straight and in one it was high. In none was it 
depressed. The resemblance here is to the F; males rather than to 
the Hawaiian parents. The condition of nasal bridge and septum is 
about the same as in the F; generation. Segregation of nose form in 
the F, family is made highly probable by the observations, since the 
nasal indices range from 62 to 90 (the parents had indices of 86 and 
76). Five of the nine children had indices of less than 77, and when 
it is considered that these were immature subjects in which the nose 
is relatively broader than at maturity, it will be evident that the 
narrower type characteristic of the European shows a considerable 
tendency to reappear in the second generation. 

Segregation of hair color is not very evident in this generation. 
Twenty-three individuals had black or dark brown hair while 3 had 
brown hair. Two had light brown hair while in one the hair was a 
very light brown, almost blonde. These light hair colors were not 
observed in the F, generation, and although the lightest haired F», 
was a very young child, they probably represent the reappearance 
of a recessive blondness introduced by the European grandparent. 
In hair form also there is little difference between this and the pre- 
ceding generation. Wavy hair was observed in 20 cases, curly in 5, 
while straight hair appeared only 3 times. In the family observed 
the father had wavy and the mother frizzy (probably a variety of 
curly) hair while of the 8 children observed for this trait 4 had 
wavy, 3 had curly, and 1 had straight hair. The last is probably the 
recessive type. 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 163 


Although most of the F, subjects had eyes of some shade of brown 
(brown 12, dark brown 7, light brown 5) asin the F, generation, the 
frequency of blue and hazel eyes was somewhat higher (1 hazel and 
3 blue). This evidence of the reappearance of a recessive blond- 
ness 1s borne out by the occurrence of several F; subjects with very 
light skins. In the one F, family observed, the F; parents had skin 
of about the average shade of pure Hawaiians, while of the F, chil- 
dren 6 had skin as dark or slightly darker than the parents, while 3 
had very light skins, practically white, and 1 of them was distinctly 
of the blonde type. | 

In general there is some evidence of the reappearance in the 
second generation of several traits such as longer head shape, nar- 
rower nose, and the lighter types of pigmentation, which from the 
I’; evidence appeared to be recessive in inheritance. Because of the 
diverse combinations in which these traits reappeared, the second 
generation is much more variable than the first, although the small 
numbers preclude a quantitative analysis of this point or of the 
statistical relations between the various types and combinations. 


Bacxkcross GENERATIONS 


Our observations on progeny of matings of hybrids with either 
Hawaiians or Europeans are more numerous than the observations 
on progeny of matings of hybrids inter-se. The data include de- 
scriptions of 42 individuals with 1 pure Hawaiian parent and 1 
hybrid parent; of 23 individuals with 1 European and 1 hybrid 
parent; and of 16 individuals with variable proportions of white 
and Hawaiian blood who cannot be properly placed in any of the 
above classes. It is apparent from the relative numbers encoun- 
tered in our sample and from the marriage statistics that persons 
with part Hawaiian blood more often marry members of one of the 
parent races, than others part Hawaiians like themselves. Of the 
group with 1 Hawaiian ‘and 1 hybrid parent, the Hawaiian parent 
was the mother in 24 cases and the father in 18 cases. Of the group 
with 1 European and 1 hybrid parent, the European parent was in 
all cases the father. No offspring of matings between a Kuropean 
woman and a part Hawaiian man were found. The original obser- 
vations of these subjects are given in Appendix Table IV, where 
they have been grouped according to the mating involved, and on 
the basis of sex and maturity. Those individuals descended from 


164 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


matings of hybrids with pure Hawaiians are classed as “‘ BC (back- 
cross) X Hawaiian’’; the reciprocal group as ‘‘BC X white.” All 
individuals included in either BC group had one parent of pure - 
race. As in the other tables, those matings in which a European 

ancestor was Portuguese are specially designated (P) and follow 
those in which the white parent was a North European. The 

“BC X Hawaiian” group consists chiefly of individuals from 

matings of F; (§ Hawaiian, + white) by Hawaiian, although a 

few are included in which the hybrid parent was # Hawaiian, + 

white. In general these backcross subjects have about 2 Hawaiian 

and + white blood. Similarly the individuals in the ‘“BC xX 

white” group are in general 3 white and 4 Hawaiian. Neither of 

these generations then represents a ‘‘ backcross’ in the strict sense 

of matings between F; hybrids with a pure parent type, and the 

questions concerning segregation of traits in numerical proportions 

which might be solved from such a generation, strictly defined, 

cannot be answered from the present data. The data on these gen- 

erations, however, are useful in determining in how far the physical 

traits of the backcross groups differ from those of the pure Hawaii- 

ans and of the first generation hybrids. Wherever significant differ- 

ences appear, these may be ascribed to inheritance from the white 

ancestors involved, and they should be more pronounced in those 

individuals which are 2 white than in those which have but one 

quarter of white blood. Some indications of the manner of inherit- 

ance of the traits observed should be yielded by a comparison of 

the backcross groups with each other and with the parent groups, 

since, for example, any Hawaiian traits appearing in the “BC X 

white’’ group may be assumed to be dominant in inheritance while 

the appearance of white traits in the ““BC X Hawaiian” group 

may likewise be ascribed to some degree of dominance of the trait 

in question. 

The most profitable results, therefore, may be obtained by a 
direct comparison of the physical characters of the backcross gen- 
erations with those of the Hawaiians and of the F, hybrids. 

The best description of the mensurable traits of the “BC X 
Hawaiian” group is available from the measurements of 12 adult. 
females, of 2 Hawaiian and + white blood. Only 4 adult males of 
this type were encountered. Brief reference to the characteristics 
of these will be made in the course of the comparison, but it is of 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 165 


little value to average their measurements. For the measurements 
of the “BC X white” group we have only the data on 6 adult 
females, and again a small group of 4 adult males. For non-men- 
surable traits we may include the whole ‘BC X Hawaiian”’ group 
of 33 individuals from crosses with North European, and the 19 
subjects of the “BC X white” (North European) group. It is 
safer not to include in these groups individuals with Portuguese 
blood in the ancestry, because of the occasional appearance of negro 
traits in individuals of this descent. The mensurable traits are 
compared in Table 36; the non-mensurable traits are given for each 
group separately in Tables 37 and 38, and compared in Table 39. 

Comparison of Mensurable Traits. In Table 36 appear the 
average measurements and the range of variability of 34 Hawaiian 
females, 12 BC X Hawaiian females of # Hawaiian and + North 
European blood, and 6 BC X white females of + Hawaiian and 2 
North European blood. Acromic height and arm length measures 
are not included, since there was practically no difference between 
the parent races in these dimensions. The probable errors and 
variation constants have not been appended since these could 
have no significance with such small numbers of subjects and 
since there is no intention of drawing conclusions from the absolute 
differences between the averages. We shall only attempt to de- 
termine whether there is any tendency toward change in the aver- 
ages in going from pure Hawaiians to those with but one quarter 
of Hawaiian blood. 

A general view of the averages is sufficient to indicate that there 
are no great differences between the bodily dimensions of these 
three groups, and this was hardly to be expected in view of the simi- 
larity of the parent races in size. The four possibly significant indi- 
cations however are (1) the lower average weight of the ? white 
group; (2) the tendency for the cephalic index to decrease in passing 
from the Hawaiian to the ? white group; (3) the lower average of 
nose breadth and nasal index in the ? whites; (4) the somewhat 
narrower and relatively higher faces of the subjects with more 
white blood. In respect to the first it was found that the Hawaiians 
were marked by stoutness, having a relatively higher index of 
bodily fullness (Index 1.53 males). The same tendency was obser- 
vable in F,; (Index males 1.68) and is evident in the ? Hawaiians 
females. The index for the + Hawaiians is much lower, but for two 


AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


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adoolg GLH F/E GNV NVIIVAV]T F/T GNV dooTg GLIHMA F/T ONV NVIIVMV] f/g DNINIVLNOO 
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HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 167 


reasons it cannot be certainly attributed to the inheritance of 
slighter body build from the white parent: (1) the F, (¢ Hawaiian) 
and # Hawaiian groups show no tendency to deviate in the direc- 
tion of the lighter European average (2) the weights of the + 
Hawaiians are derived from only five subjects all of whom were 


under 25 years of age, or before maximum weight is attained. 


TaBLE 37. DESCRIPTIONS OF NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF 33 
OFFSPRING OF Backcross MATINGS BETWEEN F, (HAawatlaNn X 
North EvROPEAN) AND PurRE HawallIANs 


TIRIRCDION oh. Sik... Black 21, Dark brown 9, Reddish 1, no record 2 
ASP TOU oe, o- Wavy 23, Curly 6, Straight 3, no record 1 
Hye color......... Brown 16, Light brown 7, Dark brown 9, Hazel 1 
RIM COIOr. fs... Broca’s grades. .24—7 von Luschan’s grades .... 8-1 
25-5 9-1 
47-3 10-1 
39-2 12-2 
13-1 
14-1 
15-2 
cg 2 
INOee fOTM. . 5666s - OS a ETERS LENE, Rs SRN alr ieee a Pea 3 2 
GUL ANT iL Mott SI gia ta eens as rf 7 
REO IIRC HOCH Cont AWE te bh aite ast eat Soils 3 11 
HO PM CERI OT Gre oe yer eas ce tar) aces 8 10 
BOLING et eters soca a der arate ven ie 1 8 
ro) Sco, ae Mir Reg Ag ag ae: Ale i ai + 2 
peering) Mestre lib. Go ds ee tees Se ta 10 re 
CRS on ORae LOO Nr One PLEATS Cau Ran & 3 13 
LN Lo ae Thick 9, medium 8 
Prognathism....... Absent 13, slight 2 
Brow ridges....... Absent 13, slight 2, prominent 1 


The cephalic index falls from 84.2 in the Hawaiian females, to 
82.6 in the ? Hawaiians, to 79.9 in the { Hawaiians. .The tendency 
indicated is toward longerheadedness in those individuals with 
more white blood. In attempting to establish whether this ten- 
dency is significant we have tabulated the cephalic indices of all of 
the 2 Hawaiian and + Hawaiian subjects (exclusive of Portuguese 
mixtures), combining the observations on subjects of age 13 and 
over and of both sexes. This is not strictly justifiable, but the 
sexual difference in the index is so small, it changes so little between 
age 13 and maturity, and the distribution of age and sex is so 


168 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


TABLE 38. DESCRIPTION OF NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF 19 
OFFSPRING OF Backcross MATINGS BETWEEN F, (HAWAIIAN X 
NortH EvROPEAN) AND PURE WHITES 


Hairicolory yaaa Black 1, Dark brown 5, Brown 8, Light brown 3, Light 
yellow 1, no record 1 
Hair form.........Wavy 7, Straight 6, Curly 1, no record 5 
Eye: color a. ees Dark brown 3, Brown 4, Light brown 3, Hazel 1, Blue 6, 
no record 2 
kin Coloma. sveess) Broca’s grades. .23-6 
24-1 
“light’”’—2 
of *, 
Nose form......... Root, high: 2. yc bs Het seure ons 5 1 
Straight.....5 sae) vos. eee 4 3 
depressed... 2.2... wa. An oe 1 1 
Bridge, straight: : i. ..2) | 7 5 
CONCAVE 5. si.hs «21g tec eo 2 
CONVEX wiojs5r,0 ss ne as 1 
Septum, straight. ......2...12 7. 6 2 
UP) oo ead ao we. Ar 3 3 
down os. bot. ey oe 1 
Lips ate ee ee ee Thick 2, medium 6, thin 1 
Prognathiam.; 2.5 Absent 8 
Brow ridges Absent &, slight 3, prominent 1 


similar in the groups to be compared as to result in but little dis- 
tortion of the data. The results are given in Table 39. 

In spite of the small differences between the means of the adult 
indices, the ? Hawaiians and + Hawaiians do show distinct differ- 
ences in the frequency of different headforms. Longer or medium 
heads are more frequent in those with most white blood, while the 
short or round head forms are most frequent in those with most 
Hawaiian blood. | 

The difference in mean nasal index between the subjects with 3 
and with { Hawaiian blood is probably significant although based 
on very few observations of the latter type. Examination of the 
individual indices of all subjects of both sexes and of age 13 and 
over shows that over 35 per cent of the + Hawaiians had narrow 


TABLE 39, PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION oF CEPHALIC INDEX 


No. —74.9 75-79.9 80-84.9 85-89.9 90- 
o/4:Hawaian sc .<. tne aeons (29) nary 38.0 34,5 24,1 3.4 
1/4 Hawatian 3.29. fw sae (19) 21.0 58.0 15.8 5.2 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 169 


noses with index of 65 or below while only 10 per cent of the 2 Ha- 
waiians had such narrow noses. This index (65) marks the approxi- 
mate lower limit of variation in shape of nose among the pure Ha- 
waiians, since only three immature subjects out of 157 pure Ha- 
wallans had noses as narrow as this. The appearance of narrow 
noses in the generation arising from a backcross of F; hybrids with 
the European parent type is probably due to the segregation of the 
narrow Kuropean nose form as a recessive, which agrees with the 
evidence from the F, generation. 

The possible differences in the relative height and width of the 
face in the different hybrid groups has also been tested by examin- 
ing the individual facial indices of all of the subjects. In the “BC 
< Hawaiian” (# Hawaiian) group about one third of all of the sub- 
jects have indices of the high or leptoprosopic type (above 88 per 
cent), while in the ‘BC X white” (4 Hawaiian) group nearly half 
have high faces of this type. The difference in the mean facial in- 
dex of the two groups is small, as is also the difference between the 
two parent types, but there seems to be some tendency for the 
slightly narrower, higher face of the European to be recessive in 
inheritance. 

In Table 40 appears a comparison of the backcross generations 
with the Hawaiian and F, generation in respect to hair form and 
color and eye color. The generations are arranged in the table in 
order of decreasing amount of Hawaiian blood, and the per cent of 
each generation falling into each descriptive class is given. In this 
table the conclusions already indicated by the F; and F, data are 
confirmed and in addition there is evidence of segregation of several 
North European recessive traits. In general, the frequency of the 
typically Hawaiian condition of the trait decreases with the in- 
creasing proportion of white blood. Thus in hair color the frequency 
of black hair falls from about 90 per cent among the Hawaiians to 
about 5 per cent among those subjects with 4 Hawaiian and ? 
white blood, while the frequency of lighter shades of hair rises cor- 
respondingly with the increase in proportion of white blood. One 
clear blonde segregate occurs in the ‘‘BC X European” group, 
while the presence of individuals with light brown hair in this group 
and their absence from all the others indicates that this color also 
appears as a recessive introduced by the European ancestor. The 
red-brown hair which appears in 3 of the groups is of the Hawaiian 


170 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


TasLE 40. COMPARISON OF THE COLOR AND FORM OF THE HAIR AND 
OF THE CoLoR oF EYES IN HAWAIIANS AND IN HYBRIDS OF 
HAWAIIANS AND NortH EUROPEANS 


Percentage Distribution of Hair Color 


Ha- Dark Light Red 
waiian No. Black Brown Brown Brown Brown Yellow 
Hawailan.'.... 44 cdnctos5, 4/4) - bt ee UGae Ge is 
BG. By Xhawetian) 3/4 ol 67.0 29.0 °° 2a eee 3.2 
peaches sta, ence a re ees 2/4 25° 44.0 32.0° 20,00 ee 3.7 SF 
BC F, X North European. 1/4 17. 5.6 27.8. 444 16.7 eee 
Hair Form 
Hawaiian No. Curly Wavy Straight 
Hawaiian.) eee ee 149 29.5 61.7 8.7 
BO lps @ Hawaiians enee. 3/4 Ape 18.7 71.9 9.4 
| Eee PEN eed sce iae Ne 2/4 23 17.4 70.0 12.6 
BC F, X North European. 1/4 14 Gl 50.0 42.9 
Eye Color 
Dark Light 
Hawaiian No. brown Brown brown Hazel Blue 
Hawaleans sc ce eee 4/4 155 43.9 43.2 11.6 6 6 
BC Fy, XS Hawatian: 7.7 +. 3/4 33 27.3 48.5 olie Oa ork 
Hits Sed ON es 2/4 25 8.0 48.0 36.0 4.0 4.0 


BC F, X North European. 1/4 17 17.6 .. (23:6 17.6 5.9 35.3 


(‘Khu’) type and has apparently not been introduced by the im- 
mediate European cross. In hair form, the frequency of the Ha- 
wallan curly type decreases, and of the European straight type in- 
creases with decreasing amount of Hawaiian blood. The eye color 
becomes progressively lighter in passing from Hawaiians to those 
with only + Hawaiian blood, culminating in the appearance of blue 
and hazel eyes in over 40 per cent of the “‘BC X European” group. 
The lighter colors of hair and eyes, and the straighter hair form in- 
troduced by the European ancestors are apparently behaving in 
this as in other crosses as recessives, although it is evident that 
dominance is not complete in respect to any of them. 

The descriptions of other non-mensurable traits of the backcross 
groups are given in Tables 37 and 38. There are too few of these 
to permit of any conclusive statements. The skin colors of the 
“BC X Hawaiian”’ group are apparently similar to those of the 
pure Hawaiians, while of the 9 observations of the ‘‘BC X white”’ 
group, 2 were recorded as “light,” presumably of the European 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 171 


type, while 6 were somewhat lighter than the modal shade for Ha- 
walians. Several subjects in each backcross group were described 
as having the high nasal root of the European type. The presence 
of this type in the ‘‘BC X Hawaiian” group with 2 Hawaiian blood 
confirms the F’; evidence that the high nasal root behaves as a dom- 
inant. The Hawaiian type of low or depressed nasal root was rare 
in the ‘““BC X white” group and more frequent in the ‘BC x 
Hawaiian” group. 


HyYBrips oF HAWAIIANS AND SoutH EUROPEANS 


The number of subjects descended from matings between Ha- 
waiians and Portuguese or Spanish is too small for detailed analy- 
sis (20 with some Portuguese blood, 5 with some Spanish blood), 
although the physical features of this group differ somewhat from 
those of the Hawaiian-North European hybrids. The chief argu- 
ment for considering the Portuguese hybrids separately was the 
frequent evidence of negro admixture in subjects reporting them- 
selves of Portuguese descent. The Portuguese in Hawaii, as has 
been noted, have come chiefly from the Cape Verde Islands and 
many of them are thought to be either negroes or negro-Portuguese 
hybrids. In our material several negroid traits appear in ‘“ Portu- 
guese’’ and Spanish hybrids. No. 313, % Spanish, ? Hawaiian 
(Table IV, BC X Hawaiian female), for example, was noted by the 
observer as possibly part negro and the description confirms this 
suspicion. This woman had very long arms (arm index 49.6, the 
highest in our material), a very small head, a small, narrow, long 
face and dark skin. No. 442 (2 Portuguese, ? Hawaiian), showed 
less distinctly negroid features, but had a low broad nose (index 94) 
and kinky black hair. No. 432, (4 Portuguese, ? Hawaiian), had a 
typically negroid nose, with a high index, low root and upturned 
septum. In addition to these subjects 5 others representing crosses 
of Hawaiian and negro were observed. Their measurements are 
given in Appendix Table VI. In the case of 3 of these the negro 
ancestor was traced to the Cape Verde Islands and was said to be 
“Portuguese.’’ Each of these had kinky black hair; one had long 
arms (index 47.2) with a relatively short trunk (index 50.2) and a 
narrow high face. Other negroid features similar to those noted 
among the Portuguese hybrids were in evidence. 


172 | AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


The principal peculiarities of the Portuguese hybrid group as a 
whole as compared with the North European hybrids, are their 
smaller size, the greater frequency of individuals with relatively 
long arms, sometimes combined with a rather short trunk, and their 
narrower and frequently higher faces. Thus 4 mature males F; 
Portuguese X Hawaiian averaged 155 pounds in weight and 166 
cm. 1n height, compared with 194 pounds and 173 em. for the North 
Kuropean F; group. The face width of the Portuguese group was 
134 mm. while the northern group averaged 145 mm. The nar- 
rower face seems to obtain throughout the whole group of Portu- 
guese hybrids, although because of somewhat greater facial height, 
the facial index is about the same as in the northern group. We 
have no good evidence from which to form an estimate of the phy- 
sical features of the Portuguese parents. Our own material includes 
descriptions of 9 Portuguese observed in Hawaii, although only 4 of 
these were adult, all females (see Appendix, Table VI). From these 
and other observations (cf. Martin), it is apparent that the Portu- 
guese parents are shorter (average height males about 165 cm.), 
and smaller than the North European parents or the Hawaiians. In 
bodily proportions they probably do not differ significantly from 
the North Europeans or Hawaiians; in head shape they are meso- 
cephalic (average head index about 78-80). Their nose form, where 
not affected by negro mixture, is probably similar to that of the 
North Europeans, i. e. index about 65, with high root and straight 
bridge. The shorter stature and size of the Portuguese-Hawaiian 
hybrids indicates the absence of dominance which obtains in most 
dimensional characters; while the narrower face is probably an 
expression of their generally smaller size, since the facial index is 
about the same for the Portuguese as for the North European 
hybrids. 


OTHER HAWAIIAN-WHITE MIXTURES 


Observations were made of a number of Hawaiian-white hybrids 
which could not be classified in any of the groups discussed above, 
chiefly because of the greater complexity or incompleteness of the 
pedigrees. The original data on these are given at the end of Ap- 
pendix, Table IV. For the most part these subjects represent a 
more advanced stage of race mixture than the F, or backcross 
groups, and they form a rather variable group, showing many dif- 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 173 


ferent combinations of Hawaiian and European traits. The pedi- 
gree of No. 290, for example, indicates that she probably is of the 
third hybrid generation. She resembles a pure Hawaiian in most of 
the traits observed. Likewise No. 33, although half white, probably 
is of the third hybrid generation, and appears to be a typical Ha- 
walian. No. 167 on the other hand is 2 white, yet has a low broad 
face, and resembles the Hawaiian type in body build, but has the 
high nose and lighter hair and eyes more characteristic of the Euro- 
pean type. The occurrence of different combinations of traits in 
this heterogeneous group bespeaks some measure of independent 
segregation of the heritable features of each racial type. Aside from 
this, the group does not add anything to our knowledge of the in- 
heritance of the traits in question. 


SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION 


The European and Hawaiian types which have intermarried in 
Hawaii are very similar in bodily dimensions and proportions, ex- 
cept for the greater corpulence of the Hawaiians. The F, hybrids 
and those with ? Hawaiian blood resemble the Hawaiians in this 
respect, although there is not enough evidence on the weight either 
of the European type when living under Hawaiian conditions or of 
hybrids of later generations to permit the conclusion that the ten- 
dency to corpulence is inherited as a dominant, or that it is due to 
diet and habits of life. 

There is distinct evidence of the inheritance of the brachyceph- 
alic head shape of the Hawaiians as a dominant, and of the re- 
appearance of the European type of head as a recessive in later 
hybrid generations. The Hawaiians have broader noses than the 
Europeans, and this characteristic appears likewise in the hybrids. 
It possibly depends on dominant factors, although the size of a soft 
part such as the width of the nostrils must depend to some extent 
on the relative fleshiness of the face, and thus indirectly and partial- 
ly on the same environmental conditions which conduce to greater 
corpulence. The shape of the root of the nose probably is affected 
less or not at all by such conditions, and the differences between the 
lower and frequently depressed root of the Hawaiian nose and the 
higher, narrower root of the European type probably depend on 
heritable factors. In this trait there is good evidence of the domi- 


174 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


nance of the higher European type. It is possible that these two 
parts of the nose are affected by different factors, since the broader 
nostrils of the Hawaiian and the higher root of the European ap- 
pear together in some of the F; hybrids, indicating that the Ha- 
waiian condition of the one part (nostrils) may be dominant; while 
of the other part (root) is probably recessive. 

The darker hair color, wavier hair form, and darker shade of eyes 
and skin of the Hawaiian type are partially dominant. Straight 
hair, and blondness of hair, eyes, and skin reappear as recessives in 
segregating generations (F, and backcross). As a whole, the F; 
hybrids bear a closer resemblance to the Hawaiian than to the 
European parent type, and it seems that in the traits observed, the 
Hawaiians contribute to the cross relatively more dominant factors 
than the Europeans. Such evidences of the dominance of the factors 
contributed by this or that parent type are, however, of relatively 
minor importance, since in most of the traits observed dominance 
was incomplete, the hybrid occupying a position intermediate 
between the parental conditions of the trait. The more significant 
features of the results are the evidences of segregation of “‘racial”’ 
characters such as nose form, head form, hair and skin color in di- 
verse combinations in the F, and backcross generations. The evi- 
dences of Mendelian inheritance in such traits do not extend to the 
ratios obtained, and this is not to be expected from the data at pres- 
ent available. Factorial analyses supported by clear segregation 
ratios can be expected to appear only in data involving large num- 
bers of F; or backcross progeny, obtained from complete family 
records in which the description of each trait in each ascendant is 
known. 

Nor do the data throw much light on the important question of 
the relative number of hereditary differences between the Hawai- 
ians and Europeans. In the dimensional traits such as stature and 
length of parts, there appears to be very little difference; in the 
shape of the nose there is a distinct and apparently wide difference, 
yet from the behavior of nose shape in inheritance, this seems to be 
determined by relatively few factors, so that the divergence may 
have been brought about by only a few hereditary changes. In 
general those features in which the Hawaiians differ most markedly 
from the Europeans (color of skin, hair and eyes, form of nose and 
face) are those in which the Hawaiians and Chinese are most alike. 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 175 


Thus the chief divergence of Hawaiians and Europeans is in the 
more Mongoloid features of the Hawaiians. These are few in the 
present case, possibly because some distinctly Mongoloid features 
were not observed (such as relative hairiness of head and body). 
The data thus appear to show relatively fewer differences between 
the Hawaiian and European than between the Hawaiian and Chi- 
nese, and indicate for the Hawaiians a position (in respect to num- 
ber of hereditary differences) intermediate between Europeans and 
Mongoloids, with somewhat closer affinity to the European. In 
any event, the number of differences between the Hawaiian on the 
one hand and the Europeans or Chinese on the other appear to be 
definitely fewer than those between the European and the Chinese. 
Finally, it should be remembered that the criteria for judging the 
number and importance of racial differences, viz., the results of 
factorial analysis of the separate traits, can at present be applied 
only in a fragmentary and tentative way, because of inadequate 
evidence on inheritance and ignorance of the effects of diverse en- 
vironments on most of the traits commonly observed. 

The results of study of the Hawaiian-Chinese and Hawaiian- 
European crosses confirm the already considerable evidence that 
(1) all physical characters of the kind observed are quite variable 
even in pure racial groups; (2) this physical variability is somewhat 
increased in the hybrids, chiefly through the formation of different 
combinations of characters, although the hybrid groups cannot be 
distinguished from the “‘pure”’ types merely by increased variabil- 
ity in single traits; (3) there are few or no constant or infallibly dis- 
tinguishing marks of any of the races or hybrid groups studied. 
From the observations recorded, all of these types appear to have 
much in common, and the heritable physical differences are fewer 
than one would have been led to expect from a knowledge of the 
previous geographic isolation of the groups and of the absence of 
recent intercrossing between them. So far as the measurements go, 
there appear to be no absolute criteria of race or of stage of mixture. 
The results of crosses between ‘‘races’’ show that “race” as it ap- 
plies to a congeries of physical characters, must be used only in a 
relative or comparative sense, since ‘‘races”’ as such do not segre- 
gate from crosses, but break up into their separate component fea- 
tures. Thus from the crossing of races in Hawaii there emerges a 
heterogeneous population which does not contain distinctly Ha- 


176 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


waiian, or Chinese, or White individuals, although many may re- 
produce the Hawaiian, or Chinese or white condition of one or a 
number of traits. Such a group departs from its parent types not 
so much in “racial” traits, but rather by exhibiting in its physical 
features the potentialities for the development of a future more 
uniform type which may be more or less Hawaiian, or Chinese, or 
white, depending on combinations of circumstances which cannot 
at present be foretold. 


HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 177 


RactaL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECTS 


A. Pure Races B. Hawaiian-‘‘White’’! Hybrids C. Hawaiian-Chinese Hybrids 





1a | BOs ply wee ee ence ho hic 28 
Chinese. .... Maas coe Ce a aes oes SU Ho eee ee chy hee: 6 
Portuguese.. 9 | Backcross X Hawaiian 42 | Backcross X Hawaiian 28 
Japanese.... 8 | Backcross X White.... 23 | Backcross X Chinese. 5 
Korean..... 4 | Other mixtures....... 16 | Other mixtures....... 8 
Filipino. .... 2 
Totals . .203 147 75 

D. Fi Hawaiian E. Tri-Racial Hybrids F. Multiple and Other Hybrids 
Negro .... 5 | Haw. Chinese White. .27 | Haw. Port. Tahitian White . 1 
Japanese... 4 | Haw. Indian White... 4 | Haw. Chinese Negro White.. 1 
Samoan... 3 | Haw. Malay White... 2 | Haw. Indian Japanese White 1 
Filipino... 1 | Haw. Japanese White. 2 | Part Hawaiian............. 8 
Indian.... 1 | Haw. (other)? White . 6 | Non-Hawaiian hybrids...... (i 
Hindu.... 1 | Haw. Japanese Samoan 1 | Unclassified and omitted.... 8 

Totals 15 42 26 

(Save lll highs" 6 See eg a 508 


1 Including Portuguese and North European. sO dh 
2 Including one each of Syrian, Hindu, Tahitian, Negro, Portuguese (negro?) and Filipino 
and ‘‘East Indian.” 3 Probably part Negro. 


Nativity oF HawaliaAn SUBJECTS 
Subjects listed as pure Hawaiians are natives of Oahu except for the following: 


Ma.LEs FEMALES 
Subject No. Native of Subject No. Native of 
he 2 rn Maui 286 alae wee Maui 

Ua. AR a Molokai DST oe es Molokai 
DE a Hawaii , 289 Fee Be oe Hawaii 
a, 2 Maui 204 eae eee Kauai | 
08, 50 Hawaii ZOO rere Molokai 
od Ev: ee - BOA aie eres Maui _ 
tn e SLi t Bee ed Hawail 
ne, he < 3185 eapee wes Hawaii 
SG Ls 2 an Maui SLO eee ee Kauai 
ie, 4 Hawail BZA eee Maui 
SS 0 6 Maui SOL eee ene Hawail 
a?) er ‘ 
EL «ce ar 3 
ST 50 Hawaii 
S00) Se Hawaii 
SSE ee Kauai 
Pe Lae aah lle are Maui 
Ale ee os a NS Maui 
RES eer ey aera Gata ee Kauai 
Lat 2) a Maui 
ie ee a eae Kauai 


178 


AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF 


OccUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUBJECTS DESCRIBED IN 


Subject No. 


401-425 
501-506 
23- 56 
88- 98 
57- 61 
86- 87 
137-138 
163-168 
17-182 
62- 85 
115-122 
153-162 
123-127 
139-143 
145-146 
144 
147-152 
175-177 
194-231 
234-273 
277-332 
334-342 
343-400 
426-500 


APPENDIX, TaBLEs I-IV 


Occupation 


Unclassified subjects measured at gathering places such as 
churches, beaches, homes, etc., probably representing a 
random sample of the population in respect to occupation. 


School boys and girls — Hameameha school 


Palama settlements 


Students — Mills Schools 
Y. W. C. A. and Kindred settlements 
Y. M. C. A. — Swimmers 


Fishermen 
Policemen 


Students — Girls’ Industrial School 


Students — Summer school 


Stevedores 
Workers in pineapple factories 


HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 179 


Nore to Tasue IV, AppEnprIx 


In this and the following tables, information on the parentage of each subject 
is given in the column headed “pedigree.” The following abbreviations are 
uesed to designate race (or nationality) of the parents. 


Am ... White American | spies sre Korean 

She ae Chinese INA craks Malay 

Ca.... Canadian N..... North European 
Titec. English Ne.... Negro 

ese: Filipino No.... Norwegian 

tea tee French tae Te? Portuguese 
ee German Nets ia ee Samoan 
ai Hawaiian eles Maes Scotch 

| ea eM Amerindian Sw.... Swedish 

|S Nem pee East Indian sh Phe Spanish 

iti he oie Irish 4 ERS Tahitian 

HDs oes Japanese We as White (usually North European) 
este, Jewish 


The mother’s race is given before the line; the father’s after. 
Thus HE/H indicates that the mother was 1 f2 Hawaiian, 1/2 English and the 
father was Hawaiian. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE I. RAW DATA FOR THE STUDY OF THE ANTHROPOMETRY OF 
PURE HAWAIIANS 




















Adult Males 

Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 
; Height | Height : Index | Index Ceph- 
cee Age Mites Stature vy oe se Seen (oe Length Shing Length| Breadth Tides 
41 43 ... | 170.8 | 140.4 | 59.5 | 87.0 | 80.9 | 47.36 | 50.94 | 186 | 161 86.56 
142 71 ... | 162.0 | 135.0 | 59.0 | 83.5 ete RAY we ea | BSS EGE 87.98 
193 42 ..-» | 169.5 | 139.5 | 60.0 | 85.0 | 79.5 | 46.90 | 50,15) 1759 tes 88.57 
99 42 ite tee Ee eee We tke Pon Pe: east T94 168 84.02 
140 47 ... | 160.8 | 132.5 | 60.3 | 86.8 | 72.2 | 44.90 | 53.98 | 182 | 161 $2.97 
141 60 185 | 170.2 | 138.0 | 62.2 | 87.8 | 75.8 | 44.53 | 51.59 | 198 | 158 79.80 
143 28 185 | 178.4 | 147.0 | 66.0 | 93.2 | 81.0 | 45.40 | 52.24 | 192 | 159 82.81 
146 59 216 | 176.9 | 147.8 | 64.8 | 90.4 | 83.0 | 46.92 | 51.10 | 199 | 163 $1.91 
148 35 185 | 185.5.| 151.2 | 62.8 | 96.4 | 88.4 | 47.65 | 51.97 | 195 | 154 75.97 
150 48 230 | 176.7 | 147.0 | 66.1 93.1 80.9 | 45.78 | 52.69 | 192 | 159 $2.81 
151 23 202 | 170.4 | 140.5 | 64.9 | 91.4 | 75.6 | 44.37 | 53.64) 187 | 160 $5.56 
152 41 200 | 173.5 | 141.5 | 62.3 | 93.2 | 79.2 | 45.65 | 53.72 | 201 | 163 $1.09 
175 25 147 | 170.5 | 140.0 | 62.2 | 89.7 | 77.8 | 45.63 | 52.61 | 188 | 165 87.76 
176 A7 ... | 181.8 | 148.8 | 67.4 | 96.0 | 81.4 | 44.77 | 52.80 |) 190 | 159 &3.68 
183 yard ... | 169.5 | 135.5 | 59.8 | 86.5 | 75.7 | 44.66 | 51.08) 178 | 152 $5.39 
186 29 147 | 175.0 | 141.7 | 60.9 | 88.8 | 80.8 | 46.17 | 50.74 | 203 | 155 76.35 
187 32 169 | 170.8 | 138.9 | 62.2 | 87.7 | 76.7 | 44.91 | 51.35 | 186 | 163 $7.63 
1884 43 175 | 175.0 | 143.2 | 62.5 | 91.8 | 80.7 | 46.11 | 52.46 | 188 | 155 82.45 
1924 43 bet LOOLG EL S22 sl 5G) 83.5 | 74.1 | 46.14 | 51.99 | 194 | 156 80.41 
279 Q7 168 | 176.9 | 145.6 | 64.4 | 92.2 | 81.2 | 45.90 | 52.12 | 186 | 150 80.64 
282 21 160 | 166.4 | 136.0 | 60.5 | 87.4 | 75.5 | 45.37 | 62.52 | 185 | 150 81.35 
283 22 160 | 172.4 | 142.2 | 65.5 | 89.3 | 76.7 | 44.49 | 51.80 | 176 | 147 83.52 


53.19 | 191 | 156 | 81.67 
52.71 | 199 | 159 | 79.90 
as | L7G | 154 Sie 
56.05 | 175 | 147 | 84.00 
53.94 | 169 | 141 | 83.43 
55.03 | 181 | 150 | 82.87 
52.40 | 176 | 145 | 82.39 
54.35 | 163 | 146 | 89.57 
53.99 | 183 | 156 | 85.24 
53.79 | 180 | 159 | 88.33 
49.77 | 173 | 147 | 84.97 


284 43 150 | 169.0 | 139.2 | 65.5 | 89.9 | 73.7 
317 35 270 | 169.4 | 139.8 | 63.6 | 89.3 | 76.2 
333 53 -s» | 176.5 | 146.4) 63.8 \o 2a eoaek 
343 ? 182 | 164.5 |.132.3 | 59.2 | 92.2 | 73.1 
344 25 135 | 165.0 | 136.5 | 61.9 | 89.0 | 74.6 
345 36 151 | 167.9 | 136.4 | 60.5 | 92.4 | 75.9 
346 28 168 | 164.3 | 133.2 | 61.0 | 86.1 | 72.2 
349 25 138 | 165.4 | 134.5 | 60.9 | 89.9 | 73.6 
351 43 185 | 165.4 | 137.3 | 59.5 | 89.3 | 77.8 
352 32 145 | 167.7 | 135.4 | 63.3 | 90.2 | 72.1 
355 21 140 | 172.4 | 138.7 | 59.1 | 85.5 | 79.6 


43.61 
44.98 
47.08 
4A AA 
45.21 
45.20 
43.94 
44.50 
A704 
42.99 
46.17 








1 Husband of No. 5 (Fi Hawaiian X Chinese); father of Nos. 6-15 (Backcross Fi X Hawaiian). 
2 Father of No. 4. Bodily measurements of this subject not included in averages because of age. 


The symbols used in describing the hair and eye colors of the Hawaiians are as follows: Br—1 = light brown; Br +1 = 
dark brown; Br + 2 = very dark brown. 


we wg LX 


APPENDIX 


TABLE I. RAW DATA FOR THE STUDY OF THE ANTHROPOMETRY OF 


Face Measurements in Mm. 





Facial |Nasion 
Index 


Pros- 


uo 
76 
67 
80 
12 
75 
69 
64 
79 
76 
78 
67 
66 
79 
80 
74 
73 
7 
74 
68 
Th 
60 
75 
70 
71 
65 





3 Husband of No. 17 (Hawaiian); father of No. 20. 


Bigo- 
nial 


ae Diam. 


130 
120 
119 
128 
126 
132 
141 
135 
127 
141 
142 
145 
127 
142 
124 
128 
131 
129 
130 


Nasa 
Ht. 


56 
62 
50 
59 
60 
58 
52 
52 
58 
61 
56 
54 
59 
59 
61 
53 
53 
64 
57 
53 
52 
46 
53 
60 
55 
49 
55 
50 
52 
55 


PURE HAWAIIANS 


Adult Males 


Nasal 
Bth. 


42 
44 
4] 
46 
45 
47 
4] 
48 
44 
AA 
39 
48 
46 


41.5 


Nasal 
Index 
% 


75.00 
70.96 
82.00 
77.96 
75.00 
81.03 
78.85 
92.31 
75.86 
12.13 
69.64 
88.88 
77.96 
81.35 
72.13 
81.13 
79.24 
68.75 
80.70 
79.24 
86.54 
90.22 
88.68 
81.67 
94.54 
91.84 
74.54 
86.00 
86.54 
72.73 
81.48 
82.69 
72.88 


td 
15 
14 
12 
15 


19 


Black 
Br+1 
Black 


“ 


Descriptive 


Hair 
Form 


Curly 
“ 
Wavy 
“ 


Straight 
Wavy 


Curly 
Wavy 
Curly 
“ 
Wavy 
Curly 
“ 
Wavy 
“ 
Curly 
Wavy 
Curly 
Wavy 
“ 


“ 


Straight 
Curly 


Eye 
Color 


Brown 
ce 


Br+2 
Br-1 
Br-1 
Br—-1 
Br-1 
Br+1 
Br-1 
“ 


Brown 
Br-1 


Br+1 
Brown 
Br+1 
Br+2 
Brown 
« 
Br+1 
Br+1 
Br+1 
Brown 
Br+1 
Br+1 
Br+1 
Br+Blue 
Br+1 
Br+1 


4 Nos. 188 and 192 are twins. 
* Skin colors on Von Luschan’s scale are given in italics; those on Broca’s scale in Roman type. 


Strength 
Toa its 





38-37 
49-42? 
55-49 
51-46 
39-34 
40-45 
61-55 
53-47 
63-66 
52-48 
58-60 
61-59 
48-54 
62-55 
49-49 
62-62 
53-52 
54-48 
52-43 
56 
54 
69 
56 
56 
42 
46 
46 


182 APPENDIX 


TABLE I (continued) 
Adult Males 








Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 















: Index | Index Ceph- 
elie: Height | Arm | of Arm| of Ht ale 


Subject 
‘Ny. | Age Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting |Length|Breadth] tndex | tal 


No. 























356 | 38 134.7 | 61.6 | 87.9 | 73.1 | 44.46 | 53.47 | 177 | 150 
358 | Qi 138.3 | 56.2 | 91.2 | 82.1 | 47.70 | 52.99 | 174 | 146 
359 | 42 133.2 | 58.4 | 88.0 | 74.8 | 45.33 | 53.33 | 177 | 142 
360 | 25 136.8 | 61.9 | 85.8 | 74.9 | 45.12 | 51.69 | 168 | 142 
361 | 30 138.6 | 59.2 | 88.2 | 79.4 | 47.35 | 52.59 | 175 | 147 
363 | 30 140.9| .... | 88.8-| .c.. | ctu. 1698s eee 
366 | 50 142.1 | 60.4 | 90.0 | 81.7 | 47.64 | 52.48 | 181 | 151 
368 | 39 136.3 | 60.4 | 89.2 | 75.9 | 45.61 | 53.61 | 178 | 145 
371 23 140.8 | 65.1 | 90.3 | 75.7 | 43.91 | 52.38 | 185 | 1592 
372 | 59 140.7 | 59.2 | 91.2 | 81.5 | 46.97 | 52.56 | 184 | 155 
373 | 31 138.2 | 60.3 | 84.0 | 77.9 | 46.12 | 49.73 | 183 | 152 
374 | 26 137.5 | 61.4 | 91.6 | 76.1 | 44.53 | 53.60 | 184 | 151 
375 | 35 146.9 | 64.3 | 89.5 | 82.6 | 46.40 | 50.28 | 180 | 147 
377 | 28 143.8 | 62.2 | 93.2 | 81.6 | 46.39 | 52.98 | 188 | 152 
379 | 29 138.6 | 63.2 | 90.1 | 75.4 | 44.22 | 52.84] 176 | 149 
380 | 46 135.2 | 60.6 | 86.0 | 74.6 | 44.17 | 50.92 | 190 | 142 
381 | 39 140.1 | 63.7 | 91.5 | 76.4 | 44.78 | 53.63 | 185 | 150 
384 | 45 138.9 | 62.6 | 92.5 | 76.3 | 44.91 | 54.44 | 180 | 156 
386 | 25 141.1 | 66.9 | 91.6 | 74.2 | 43.06 | 53.16 | 181 | 143 
389 | 30 140.6 | 63.1 | 91.0 | 77.5 | 45.53 | 53.47 | 182 | 151 
392 | 27 136.3 | 66.6 | 88.0 | 69.7 | 41.96 | 52.98 | 173 | 150 
393 | 31 144.9 | 67.5 | 95.2 | 77.4 | 43.12 | 53.04 | 181 | 148 
3945 | 23 135.5 | 59.9 | 91.5 | 75.6 | 44.29 | 53.60 | 171 | 151 
396 | 37 145.2 | 62.0 | 93.5 | 83.2 | 47.30 | 53.15 | 182 | 149 
397 | 20 134.9 | 60.2 | 87.5 | 74.7 | 44.94 | 52.65 | 169 | 156 
402 | 42 137.6 | 60.3 | 89.9 | 77.3 | 45.74 | 53.19 | 190 | 151 
404 | 39 140.2 | 63.4 | 91.9 | 76.8 | 45.12 | 53.99 | 171 | 150 
406 | 67 131.6 | 60.5 | 87.68| .... | .... | ... 2) 370 1 Tee 
407 | 28 139.8 | 63.5 | 90.5 | 76.3 | 44.75 | 53.08 | 183 | 154 
409 | 49 140.1 | 61.7 | 91.0 | 78.4 | 45.85 | 53.22 | 176 | 147 
410 | 60 136.8 | 60.5 | 90.4 | 76.3 | 45.80 | 54.26 | 187 | 157 
412 | 69 143.2 | 64.8 | 92.5 | 78.4 | 44.49 | 52.50 | 190 |'154 
413°) *41 136.8 | 64.4 | 87.1 | 72.4 | 43.33 | 52:12 | 177 | 149 
415 | 58 151.2 | 68.0 | 96.1 | 83.2 | 45.66 | 52.74 | 178 | 151 
416 | 25 138.1 | 61.0 | 86.1 | 77.1 | 45.73 | 51.07 | 183 | 144 
419 | 62 147.8 | 61.7 | 90.4 | 86.1 | 48.42 | 50.84 | 178 | 149 
420 | 65 139.9 | 61.4 | 92.0 | 78.5 | 46.09 | 54.02 | 179 | 146 
422 | 66 139.0 | 60.1 | 84.9 | 78.9 | 46.85 | 50.41 | 177 | 146 
423 | 36 146.5 | 63.9 | 95.4 | 82.4 | 46.14 | 53.41 | 180 | 152 
424 | 64 126.48| 50.66 | 76.99] .... | .... | .... | 174 | 146 

9 | 33 149.0 | 69.0 | 92.0 | 80.0 | 44.25 | 50.88 | 198 | 159 











5 Red Hawaiian “ Ehu.” § Measurements omitted from averages. 





























APPENDIX 183 
TABLE I (continued) 
Adult Males 
Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
— a ee oo fae BLS Nasal | Nasal ney Skin Hair Hair Eye 
Diam, | ton % thion | piam.| Ht. | Bth. 1 Color Color Form Color Strength 
Ht. Ht. rt. 

136 117 | 86.03 | 62 AT 44 | 93.62 Black Wavy Brown 59 
144 119 | 82.64 | 67 49 45 | 91.84 ‘ Curly Br+1 57 
187 114 | 83.21 | 64 45 44 | 97.78 i Brown 58 
128 114 | 89.06 | 62 A6 38 | 82.61 : Wavy Br+1 55 
135 110 | 81.48 | 70 oo 41 | 78.85 e a Brown 82 
138 113 | 81.88 | 64 49 46 93.88 a Straight Br+1 64 
141 118 | 83.69 | 73 59 | 45) | 76.27 _ Curly Brown 65 
136 122 | 89.70 | 68 49 46 93.88 : g " 54 
139 121 | 87.05 | 68 50 42 84.00 ? Br+1 51 
145 119 | 82.07 | 70 51 48 | 94.12 : - Br+1 39 
136 122 | 89.70 | 71 Ba e477 8 . Wavy Brown 61 
137 1221 89.05 | .72 49 AT 95.92 ~ Curly Br+1 54 
135 | 114 | 84.44 | 64 48 | 48 |100.00 . Wavy Brown 61 
141 129 | 91.49 | 78 59 42 | 71.19 : Curly Br+1 55 
131 119 | 90.84 | 71 52 39 75.00 : Wavy Brown 51 
132 125 | 94.70 | 67 53 47 | 88.68 : : Br+1 40 
133 127 | 95.49 | 70 49 44 | 89.79 % 2 Brown 43 
139 119 | 85.61 | 69 55 45 | 81.82 : Curly . 45 
129 122 | 94.57 | 71 55 41 | 74.54 A Wavy Br+1 57 
136 | 120 | 88.23 | 72 53.) 43 | 81.13 a Curly | Brown 49 
128 119 | 92.97 | 73 55 41 | 74.54 : Wavy : 43 
136 122 | 89.70 | 79 55 Aa TOcO0 lee. : . Curly : 52 
141 121 | 85.81 | 75 57 42 |73.68| ... | Red Br. 3 : 62 
133 112 | 84.21 | 67 51 42 | 82.35 Black Wavy Br-+1 Al 
138 | 114 | 82.61 | 70 52°} 41 |'78.85 e Curly Brown 57 
188° | 133 | 96:38 | 77 57 | 46 | 80.70 , Wavy Br+1 
136 | 118 | 86.76 | 66 51 | 44 | 86.27 . Straight | Brown 

141 121 | 85.81 | 67 50 51 |102.00 ry Wavy Br-1 

141 118 | 83.69 | 67 49 46 93.88 e x Br+1 
135 124 | 91.85 | 71 58 | 48 | 82.76 re : Br+1 
vere och oes) FL 53 | 45 | 84.90 . “ Brown 
137 138 |100.73 | 76 61 4A 7213 White . as 
137 120 | 87.59 | 65 51 43 | 84.31 Black - 

141 126 | 89.36 | 77 58 43 74.14 . . Br+1 

133 117 | 87.97 | 66 50 44 | 88.00 a Curly Brown 
139 121 | 87.05 | 62 53 44 | 83.02 : . Blue? 

142 123 | 86.62 | 72 55 46 3.64 ‘ Wavy Br-1 

130 | 121 | 93.08 | 65 49 | 42 | 85.71 2 : a 

136 118 | 86.76 | 65 53 43 | 81.13 - Curly Br.+1 

132 129 | 97.73 | 65 52 51 | 98.08 § Wavy Brown 

155 134 | 86.45 | 83 63 45 | 71.43 Curly s 











7 Recorded as ‘‘almost blue.” 





184 APPENDIX 


TABLE I (continued) 


Immature Males 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 











; Height | Height | ,, . Index | Index 
Subject) Age  |Weight| Stature of ‘Ac: ot Dac. Sittene | Length | Lenath | Sitting (Length| Breadth ee 
Ibs. % % Diam 
29 | 17 176.0 | 145.0 | 69.0 | 94.0 | 76.0 | 43.18 | 53.41 | 185 123 
30 |- 17 165.5 | 133.0 | 60.4 | 83.7 | 72.6 | 43.87 | 50.57 | 183 120 
32 18 155.9 | 127.5 | 57.8 | 83.0 | 69.7 | 44.71 | 53.24 | 185 115 
34 | 15 167.3 | 139.8 | 58.0 | 88.0 | 81.8 | 48.89 | 52.60 | 190 133 
45 | 15 154.0 | 122.0 | 53.0 | 77.0 | 69.0 | 44.80 | 50.00 | 173 116 
52 | 16 166.4 | 135.0 | 60.9 | 87.0 | 74.1 | 44.53 | 52.28 | 196 125 
53 18 175.7 | 145.5 | 63.0 | 89.2 | 82.5 | 46.95 | 50.77 | 184 127 
54 | iv |... | 154.7] 126.0] 58.0 | 79.5 | 68.0 | 43.96 | 51.39 | 183 121 
123 | 19 | 150 | 155.2 | 133.3 | 58.2 | 89.2 | 75.1 | 48.39 | 57.47 | 182 123 
13d eis 159.9 | 122.0] 51.9 | 73.6 | 70.1 | 43.84 | 46.03 | 171 110 
494 16 159.8 | 131.1 | 58.7 | 81.3 | 72.4 | 45.31 | 50.88 | 169 
Adult Females 

168 43 ... | 162.5 | 1388.0 | 59.5 | 89.7 | 73.5 | 45.28 | 50.89) 181 | 159) Peres as 
17 ~Jadult | ... | 164.5 | 134.5 | 63.3 | 84.0 | 71.2 | 43.28 | 51.06 | 180 | 161 89.44 | 115 
18 | 21 |... | 151.5 | 124.0 | 53.7 | 81.0 | 70.3 | 46.40 | 53.46] 180 | 159 | 88.33 | 117 
57 | 21 |... | 164.9 | 133.1 | 62.4 | 84.3 | 70.7 | 42.87] 51.12| 195 | 144 | 73.85 | 112 
87 | 23 |115 | 166.8 | 137.5 | 64.0 | 85.8 | 73.5 | 44.06 | 51.44) 189 | 158 | $3.60 | 118 
91 19 ... | 163.7 | 1383.1 | 63.2 | 87.3 | 69.9 | 42.70 | 53.33 | 192 | 153 | 79.69 | 124 
101 | 46 |... | 164.2] 133.5] 61.9 | 90.6 | 71.6 | 43.61 | 55.18 | 181 | 154 | 85.08 | 115 
104 48 ... | 169.2 | 140.8 | 64.2 | 87.3 | 76.6 | 45.27 | 51.59) 177 | 148 | 83.62) 114 
105 | 67 |... | 161.5 | 133.2 | 61.8 | 87.8 | 72.4 | 44.83 | 54.36] 185 | 151 | 81.62 | 112 
106 | 18 |... | 162.5] 132.3] 58.5 | 85.9 | 73.8 | 45.41 | 52.86] 184 | 152 | 82.61 | 193 
107 53 ... | 166.2 | 135.3 | 62.0 | 88.4 | 73.3 | 44.10 | 53.19 | 184 | 151 82.07 | 117 
108 | 47 |... | 156.6 | 128.6 | 61.0 | 82.4 | 67.6 | 43.17 | 52.62] 186 | 155 | 83.33 | 108 
110 | 30 |... | 165.7 | 134.5 | 58.9 | 85.9 | 75.6 | 45.62 | 51.84] 178 | 145 | 81.46 | 116 
112 31 ... | 162.3 | 129.8 | 59.8 | 88.1 | 70.0 | 43.13 | 54.28 | 196 | 154 | 78.57 113 
153 23 147 | 163.6 | 134.5 | 62.0 | 83.1 | 72.3 | 44.19 | 50.79 | 183 | 159 | 86.89 | 115 
161 19 158 | 160.0 | 131.9 | 59.6 | 86.4 | 72.3 | 45.19 | 54.00} 198 | 161 81.31 | 115 
162 18 ... | 161.7 | 132.5 | 60.2 | 86.6 | 72.3 | 44.71 | 53.55 | 180 | 149 | 82.78 | 118 
286 | 35 | 235 | 167.0 | 137.6 | 68.0 | 91.0 | 69.6 | 41.68 | 54.49| 171 | 152 | 88.89 

287 51 160 | 160.9 | 131.5 | 60.5 | 86.0 | 71.5 | 44.44 | 53.45 | 175 | 147 | 84.00 

289 22 158 | 163.9 | 135.0 | 61.8 | 87.9 | 73.2 | 44.66 | 53.63 | 179 | 148 | 82.68 





294 23 140 | 157.9 | 197.1 | 65.6 | 87.7 | .... | ...5 | 65,640 es Oe 
299 35 150 | 167.9 | 139.3 | 65.4 | 89.3 | 73.9 | 44.01 | 53.19 | 172 | 145 | 84.30 
304 30 180 | 162.1 | 131.5 | 64.2 | 89.4 | 67.3 | 41.52 | 55.15 | 171 | 146 | 85.38 
311 27 145 | 163.0 | 131.9 | 61.7 | 92.4 | 70.2 | 43.07 | 56.69 | 169 | 149 | 88.16 


8 Sister of 6’ No. 4 (Hawaiian); mother of Nos. 17 and 18 following. 





APPENDIX : 185 


TABLE I (continued) 


Immature Males 


Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 

















: Nasion iq] |Nasion! p; 
mB | Mens | nes | Foe | al |Npzal] Neel | Indes Be | EtG, (suena 
‘ rt. lft. 
144 115 | 53 41 | 77.36 Wavy Br+1 53-40 
140 105 | 65 | 43 | 66.15 Br+1 39-40 
139 112 | 57 39 | 68.42 y Brown | 30-29 
147 122 | 55 40 | 72.73 i Br+1 56-50 
137 110 | 48 | 40 | 83.33 Curly Brown | 26-24 
144 122 | 56 39 | 69.64 v3 Br+1 54-54 
145 121 | 61 39 | 63.93 Wavy Br.+1 A5 
144 117 | 56 41 73.21 Curly Br+2 33-35 
141 118 | 62 39 | 62.90 Wavy Br+1 52-58 
136 1200) 48> 7-88. 1°79.17 Straight | Brown | 25-24 
128 48 | 40 | 83.33 Straight | Br+1 34 





Adult Females 


144 122 | 84.72 | 64 112 | 52 39 | 75.00 | 47 Black | SI. curly Br+1 30-29 
“ 


142 114 | 80.28 | 63 112 | 54 39 | 72.22 | 24 : Wavy 27-25 
140 109 | 77.85 | 65 | 112 | 47 42 | 89.36 | 40— V. curly Br+2 35-33 
Soar eeoe.0o } fo 19113 | 52°) 41 «| 78.85] ... Wavy Brown | 25-19 
142 124 | 87.32 | 71 123 | 55 42 | 76.36 | 24 2 ; Br+1 34-27 
143 127 | 88.81 | 74 118 | 55 40 | 72.72 | 24 : Curly Br+2 29-34 
148 127 | 85.81 | 72 123 | 57 45 | 78.94 | 23 ¥! 4 Brown | 25-24 
146 121°} 82:87 | 70 124 | 57 4] 71,92 | 47— ‘ Wavy . 27-22 
151 122 | 80.79 | 67 129 |. 50 44 | 88.00 | 47— Me Crinkly y 24-21 
135 115 | 85.18 | 59 122 | 47 4] 87.23 | 47— = Frizzy Br+2 29-27 
141 123 | 87.23 | 72 123 | 57 44 | 77.19 | 47— ¢ Wavy Br-+1 37-31 
145 114 | 75.62 | 68 127 | 55 40 | 72.72 | 24 ey Crinkly re 22-18 
133 125 | 93.98 | 72 117 | 49 are )75.01.) 23 Ks Straight | Br—1 35-26 
144 ee oO.1 71 124 | 52 41 | 78.84 | 47— : Wavy Br+1 39-30 
144 118 | 81.94 | 67 120 | 52 4] 78.84 | 23 _ : “ 26-17 
141 125 | 88.65 | 71 116 | 53 39 | 73.58 | 47 . Frizzy § 30-31 
138 113 | 81.88 | 62 118 | 49 40 81.63 | 24 ” Straight ic 35-33 
133 113 | 84.96 | 61 Pe. [ae 49 {102.08} 17 fs Wavy i 32 

138 120 | 86.96 | 67 a8 4) OF 48 | 88.89 | 14 - Wavy es 41 

131 109 | 83.21 | 60 ue ho Sea 80.07 | 1G s Curly Brown 27 

129.5} 111 | 85.71 | 60 ae, MBS Soap elie |. 16 : Wavy < 25 

130 109 | 83.85 | 65 a ak 40 | 78.43 | 15 4 Br+1 s 

207) 113 | 87.60 | 66° |... | 51 -| 43 | 84.81 | 15 : ‘ Brown 27 


131 113 | 86.26 | 67 fd et 44 | 93.62 | 17 . 5 Br+1 Q4 








186 APPENDIX 


TABLE I (continued) 
Adult Females 








Bodiiy Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 

: Heicht.| Haicht ; Index | Index Ceph- | Min. 
Subject K Weicht| Statur vee rie Height | Arm | of Arm of Ht. Lenaitl Beewase alic | Fron- 
No. ge elg Ph cmon tylion Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting |4©™8 rea Index tal 

lbs. % % % Diam. 











312 36 145 | 155.9 | 127.7 | 56.2 | 86.2 | 71.5 | 45.86 | 55.29! 170 | 148 | 87.06 
318 29 190 | 166.0 | 138.0 | 64.2 | 86.4 | 73.8 | 44.46 | 52.05 | 172 | 148 | 86.05 


319 48 ... | 164.0 | 136.2 | 63.3 | 85.9 | 72.9 | 44.45 | 52.38) 166 | 151 | 90.96 
322 20 ... | 165.6 | 135.7 | 62.6 | 86.9 | 73.1 | 44.14 | 52.47) 164 | 144 | 87.80 
324 20 174.1 | 145.0 | 64.7 | 89.2 | 80.3 | 46.12 | 51.23 | 175 | 146 | 83.43 


331 18 112 | 154.7 | 126.4 | 59.0 | 82.4 | 67.4 | 43.57 | 53.26 | 167 | 146 | 87.42 
338 26 126 | 160.4 | 131.3 | 60.6 | 85.9 | 70.7 | 44.08 | 53.55 | 181 | 188 | 76.24 
427 30 138 | 157.5 | 128.6 | 59.9 | 83.4 | 68.7 | 43.62 | 52.95 | 179 | 145 | 81.00 
459 35 ..« | 163.9 | 186.2 | 56.3 | 84.4 |..... | ....9) SUaOo Tie aie 
464 46 ... | 155.3 | 127.2 | 59.3 | 82.0 | 67.9 | 43.72 | 52.80 | 180 | 154 | 85.55 





Immature Females 








20° 13 ... | 153.5 | 121.3 | 56.9 | 76.5 | 64.4 | 41.95 | 49.84 | 173 | 152 | 87.86 | 116 

gi? 7 ... | 124.0 | 97.8 | 44.0 | 61.2 | 53.8 | 43.39 | 49.35 | 169 | 140 | 82.84] 11] 

94 17 ... | 162.7 | 132.2 | 58.7 | 84.9 | 73.5 | 45.17 | 52.18 | 186 | 149 | 80.11 } 118 

oii 14 ... | 157.1 | 125.4 | 54.8 | 80.6 | 70.6 | 44.50 | 51.30 | 186 | 146 | 78.49 | 112 
113 9 ... | 128.5 | 102.6 | 46.4 | 62.3 | 56.2 | 43.73 | 48.48 | 172 | 146 | 84.88] 105 
114 8 ... | 182.9 | 107.9 | 49.4 | 69.5 | 58.5 | 44.02 | 52.29 | 173 | 149 | 86.13 | 108 
178 13 ... | 147.1 | 118.5 | 51.4 | 74.4 | 67.1 | 45.61 | 50.58 | 175 | 142 | 81.14) 103 
195 13 ... | 185.7 | 108.0 | 47.2 | 72.4 | 60.8 | 44.80 | 53.35 | 174 | 149 | 85.63 | 112 
199 17 ... | 171.3 | 139.4 | 61.3 | 88.0 | 78.1 | 45.59 | 51.57 | 182 | 152 | $352 1120 
200 15 ... | 154.1 | 123.8 | 56.2 | 81.0 | 67.6 | 43.87 | 52.56 | 168 | 143 | 85.12 | 112 
201 15 ... | 151.5 | 123.3 | 55.8 | 80.4 | 67.5 | 44.55 | 53.07 | 165 | 143 | 86.67 | 110 
206 17 ... | 156.4 | 126.5 | 56.7 | 82.0 | 69.8 | 44.62 | 52.43 | 177 | 158 | 89.27 | 116 
208 15 ... | 163.4 | 133.2 | 58.9 | 87.4 | 74.3 | 45.47 | 53.49 | 178 | 149 | 83.71 | 115 
210 LZ ... | 154.8 | 123.8 | 54.9 | 84.4 | 68.9 | 44.51 | 54.52 | 175 | 153 | 87.43 | 113 
212 16 ... | 151.6 | 122.7 | 53.8 | 82.9 | 68.9 | 45.45 | 54.68 | 179 | 144 | 80.45 | 118 
216 16 ... | 153.2 | 122.2 | 55.1 | 79.8 | 67.1 | 43.80 | 52:09) 177 | T44 eerie ie 
218 15 ... | 150.2 | 120.7 | 50.8 | 82.1 | 69.9 | 46.54 | 54.66 | 180 | 156 | 86.67 | 117 
220 17 ... | 163.3 | 185.2 | 62.8 | 86.9 | 72.4 | 44.383 | 53.21 | 182) 162 eo ioena iy 
224 17 ... | 161.5 | 130.1 | 57.3 | 84.7 | 72.8 | 45.08 | 52.45 | 170 | 140 | 82.35 | 112 
229 17 ... | 159.0 | 128.7 | 57.3 | 85.0 | 71.4 | 44.90 | 53.46 | 171 | 154 | 96.06 | 107 
235 16 ... | 162.1 | 132.8 | 60.9 | 88.3 | 71.9 | 44.60 | 54.47) 178 | 152 | 85.39 | 117 
236 16 ... | 151.5 | 120.9 | 53.8 | 81.9 | 67.1 | 44.29 | 54.06 | 177 | 156 | 88.147) 110 
237 16 ... | 152.0 | 121.8 | 52.9 | 80.3 | 68.9 | 45.33 | 52.83 | 171 | 148 | 86.55 | 110 
240 16 .». | 152.5 | 123.8 | 54.3 | 79.3 | 69.5 | 45.57 | 52.00 | 171 | 152 | 88.89 | 112 
241") 16 ... | 154.0 | 123.5 | 55.3 | 78.6 | 68.2 | 44.29 | 51.04] 180 | 151 | 83.89 | 111 
242 16 ... | 153.7 | 122.8 | 56.2 | 84.0 | 66.6 | 43.33 | 54.65 | 175 | 148 | 84.57 | 107 


9 Daughter of Q No. 19 (Hawaiian). 10 Daughter of Q No. 17. 11 Nos. 241 and 247 are sisters. 


Nasion 
Men- 
ton 
Ht. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE I (continued) 
Adult Females 


Face Measurements in Mm. 





Index 





Facial |Nasion| Bigo- 
Pros- a 


thion . 
Ht Diam. 


nial 


Nasal 


Nasal |} Nasal Skin 
Bth, Index 


%, Color 


Hair 
Color 


Descriptive 





187 





Eye 
Color 


Strength 
rtemtes 


a nf ff ft sf ef ff | Ef St 


109 
108 
113 
114 


127 
101 
114 
113 
109 
116 








80.74 
72.31 
86.33 
93.23 
84.38 
82.71 
90.40 
84.25 
84.29 
80.14 
87.41 
86.96 
86.76 
86.03 
83.09 
79.29 
84.56 
81.29 
78.68 
82.76 
84.44 
84.17 
84.78 
84.40 
87.21 


58 
64 
66 
65 
69 
59 
63 
69 
62 
60 


67 
55 
71 


74 


68 
67 
65 
61 


68 


70 
74 
70 
70 
72 
64 
66 
70 
64 
60 
TA 
67 
70 
68 
72 
72 


98 
100 
115 


109 


101 
107 
113 
111 
119 
123 
130 
122 
122 
133 
123 
129 
123 
128 
123 
138 
123 
119 
124 
127 
118 


50 
41 
53 
54 
48 
54 
50 
43 
60 
54 
50 
57 
54 
50 
51 
49 
51 
53 
49 
49 
57 
48 
54 
54 
56 
54 


4] PL.1iy 24 
38 | 76.00 | 13 
42 | 85.71 | 14 
38 | 74.51 | 15 
39 4).70.91"| 12 


38 | 86.36 | 13 
98° 0179,17 ) 11 
38 | 80.85 
39 | 88.64 
47 | 87.04 


lmmature Females 


34 | 68.00 | 23 
34 | 82.93 | 40— 
40) | 75.47 | 47— 
40 | 74.07 | 24 
ot 117.08. | 47 — 
36 | 66.67 | 47 
37 =| 74.00 | 47 
41 | 95.35 | 23-4 
38 | 63.33 | 47 
38 | 70.37 | 23 
34 | 68.00 | 47 
39 | 68.42 | 23— 
35 | 64.81 | 23 
41 | 82.00 | 47— 
39 | 76.47 | 24 
43 | 87.76 | 24 
44 | $6.27 | 24 
39 | 73.58 | 24 
39 =| 79.59 | 24 
37 =6| 75.51 | 24 
40 | 70.18 | 24 
37 =| 77.08 | 24 
39 | 72.22 | 23 
41 | 75.93 | 47 
43 | 76.79 | 24— 
35 | 64.81 | 24 


Br+1 
Black 
(% 
Br+1 
Black 


Br+1 
Black 


“ 


Red Br 


Black 


Wavy 
Straight 
Wavy 
Curly 
Wavy 


Frizzy 
Curly 
Wavy 
Curly 
Wavy 


Straight 
Wavy 
Curly 
Wavy 


a9 
“ 
“ 
Straight 
Wavy 


“ 


Br+1 
Brown 


Br+1 


“ 
& 


“ 


Brown 
Brown 


Br+1 


Brown 


Br+2 
Br+1 
Brown 
Br+1 
“ 
Brown 
Br+1 
Brown 
Br+1 
“ 
Brown 
Br+1 


Brown 
“ 


“ 


Br-1 
Br+1 
Brown 
Br+1 
Brown 


Brown 
Br-1 


32 
29 
27 
27 
33 
21 
31 


19-13 
10-9 
25-23 
22-25 
T= 7 
14-10 
19-14 
18-12 
44-37 
26-23 
25-17. 
22-25 
39-35 
28-21 
22-20 
24-23 
24-17 
31-28 
30-31 
25-17 
32-30 
31-26 
21-19 
24-20 
29-27 
20-26 


188 


Subject 
No. 





243 
246 
Q4'711 
256 
257 
258 
261 
266 
267 
268 
270 
429 


Age 





Weight] Stature 


lbs. 





153.0 
157.5 
155.3 
132.2 
151.5 
154.2 
145.0 
153.9 
147.0 
151.8 
ava Wlov.g 
118 | 155.5 





APPENDIX 


TABLE TI (continued) 


Immature Females 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. 








romion 





125.1 
125.8 
127.8 
107.5 
122.4 
122.8 
115.4 
124.4 
120.8 
124.8 
127.8 
124.4 


ght 
of Dac- 


Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting 
tylion 0; % 


55.5 
53.4 
57.9 
45.2 
54,2 
53.4 
50.4 
55.0 
55.5 
56.6 
58.5 
56.9 


Height 





84.9 
81.8 
83.0 
69.2 
17.9 
83.4 
15.6 
80.6 
78.4 
85.3 
85.1 
80.7 





Arm 


69.6 
72.4 
69.9 
62.3 
68.2 
69.4 
65.0 
69.4 
65.3 
68.2 
69.3 
67.5 


Index 


Index 


of Arm| of Ht. 





45.49 
45.97 
45.01 
A713 
45.02 
45.01 
44.83 
45.09 
4442 
44.93 
44.00 
43.41 





55.49 
51.94 
53.44 
52.34 
51.42 
54.09 
52.14 
52.37 
53.33 
56.19 
54.03 
51.90 


Head Measurements in Mm. 











ee ag 
Breadth trace 


% 


85.44 
86.11 
THLE 
97.62 
87.57 
84.66 
90.12 
90.29 
90.06 
92.09 
84.62 
83.43 


Min. 
Fron- 
tal 
Diam. 





107 
111 
113 
110 
109 
111 
111 
111 
110 
108 
115 


a 


APPENDIX 189 


TABLE I (continued) 


Immature Females 


Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
: _ |Nasion ial |Nasion| Bigo- 
Bizygo- /Mfen”| Facial tne?) Bigo- | vaca | Nast | Nase an cn 
Diam. ie % re Thiam, | 2t-*| Bth. % Color trengt 
Ue i 


—_——_— |———<_<—— |__|. | |S | Ss YS |  ) J Ss S | 


142 114 | 80.28 | 65 124 | 47 41 87.23 Black 21-20 
143 119 | 83.22 | 71 125 | 49 35 | 71.43 e 93-22 
139 122° | 87.77 | 75 123 | 58 45 | 77.59 Br+1 29-21 
134 111 | 82.84 | 66 120 | 50 37 =| 74.00 cs 22-17 
Por tdi) 7o0 | 66 | 119 | 49 | 37 | 75.51 Black 20-20 
139 118 | 84.89 | 72 118 | 55 39 | 70.91 NN 31-28 
137 112 | 81.75 | 66 121 | 49 38 | 77.55 Brown | Straight 20-15 
140 113 | 80.71 | 66 122 | 49 42 | 85.71 Black Wavy 29-20 
145 115 | 79.31 | 64 133 | 49 41 83.67 Curly 26-24, 
143 117 | 81.82 | 68 130 | 51 40 | 78.43 Straight | Br—1 20-22 
Paoeeter iis) 54.1770 | 125 | 50 | 37 | 74.00 Wavy Brown | 34-27 


127 ... | 85.83 | 58 ee ae oo 6) 88.10 











190 


Subject 
No. 


Age 


TABLE II. PURE CHINESE 


APPENDIX 


Adult Males 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. 


Head Measurements in Mm. 





Height | Height 


Weight} Stature of Ac- |of Dac- 


lbs. 


romion | tylion 


Height 


Index 
Arm | of Arm 


Sitting |Length | Length 


Jo 


Index 
of Ht 


Sitting Length| Breadth] [pdex 





Ceph- 
alic 


To 


Min. 

Fron- 
tal 

Diam. 


63 
64 
73 
169 
172 
173 
174 
365 
369 


126 


170 
295 
332 


118 
122 


20 
20 
20 
50 
51 
35 
45 
34 
32 


16 
12 
19 
15 
18 
16 


39 
22 
22 


16 
18 


137 
144 
126 
110 


153 
130 


110 


101 


118 
103 
94 


100 


164.3 | 1383.5 | 58.0 | 86.2 | 75.5 | 45.95 
171.0 | 187.5 | 63.2 | 87.6 | 74.3 | 43.45 
169.3 | 135.5 | 62.8 | 93.8 | 72.7 | 42.94 
160.8 | 131.2 | 56.5 | 87.3 | 74.7 | 46.45 
159.4 | 128.5 | 57.2 | 90.0 | 71.3 | 44.73 
169.2 | 135.3 | 60.6 | 90.3 | 74.7 | 44.15 
154.9 | 126.0 | 57.5 | 81.1 68.5 | 44.22 
165.9 | 135.5 | 59.2 | 85.7 | 76.3 | 45.99 
170.0 | 137.3 | 58.9 | 88.8 | 78.4 | 46.12 
Immature Males 
162.0 | 133.0 | 60.0 | 83.7 | 73.0 | 45.06 
127.0 | 101.0 | 46.6 | 65.7 | 54.4 | 42.83 
167.4 | 136.5 | 59.8 | 87.0 | 76.7 | 45.82 
154.0 | 184.0 | 54.9 | 80.5 | 79.1 | 51.36 
163.4 | 1382.3 | 57.4 | 82.3 | 74.9 | 45.84 
160.1 | 132.0 | 63.5 | 88.4 68.5 | 42.79 
Adult Females 

153.6 | 125.3 | 54.9 | 80.8 | 70.4 | 45.83 
151.4 | 124.1 | 59.4 | 81.8 | 64.7 | 42.73 

84.9 | 70.7 | 44.19 


160.0 | 134.0 | 63.3 


Immature Females 


157.9 | 126.1 | 57.9 
160.2 | 131.5 | 60.2 


86.5 
86.9 


68.2 | 43.19 
71.3 | 44.51 








51.67 
51.73 
51.97 
52.27 
50.37 
55.21 


52.60 
54.03 
53.06 


54.78 
54.24 





184 
185 
200 
190 
197 
190 
194 
181 
174 


178 
169 
192 
182 
179 
195 


176 
165 
164 


186 
178 


158 
145 
152 
152 
153 
144 


146 
138 
133 


143 
149 


(ith 
83.78 
73.00 
81.05 


74.11 
82.10 
81.44 
77.35 
82.18 





88.76 
85.80 
79.16 
83.51 
85.47 
73.84 


82.95 


| 83.64 


81.10 


76.88 
83.70 


115 
122 
123 
112 
115 
119 
117 


120 
119 
121 
112 
123 
116 


119 


115 
112 















































APPENDIX 191 
TABLE II. PURE CHINESE 
Adult Males 
Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
Facial |Nasion Bigo- Nasal ; 
- : Nasal | Nas Sk Hai Hai E E 
Kade | | el |e] pe] Index |ahin| Ba | Bi | Ese, senate 
96.96 | 80 110 | 56 41 Lovee Black | Straight} Brown |36-37| 0 
85.41 | 76 118 | 55 40 72.73 | 47 ‘: , Br-+1 | 48-48] 0 
92.19 | 74 115 | 55 40 | 72.73 | 23 Me . Brown | 58-60 | + 
84.24 | 71 134 | 55 45 81.82 |24— = a by 41-37 | — 
85.29 | 64 116 | 52 43 82.69 | 24 ” : Br—1 |34-20| 0 
93.75 | 74 1221-52 42 80.771 °23 e ‘ Brown | 40-39| — 
00.57 | 71 125 1 G1 44 86.27 |23— “ % Br—1 |38-41} + 
91.60 | 72 49 38 TT Oo : > Brown 54 + 
56.76 | 66 45 41 91.11 ne MY 32 0 
Immature Males 
141 VO 1.35.11 1-70 120 | 54 40 74.07 i < Black |44-31| 0 
130 113 | 86.92 | 68 114 | 47 36 TOMO hess a by = 9-8 0 
149 119 | 79.86 | 72 114 | 53 39 73.08 | 23 * | Brown | 58-48} ++ 
110 110 |100.00| 70 112 | 55 39 70.91 |47— Ys : Br+1 | 24-25} 0 
141 12) | 85.81 | 71 121 | 54 39 Vee ee ri 3 Brown | 47-45 | + 
126 125 | 99.20 | 72 mo Un es a Mars 42 79.24 | 4 4 L, Br+2 | 43-28) + 
Adult Females 
135 114 | 84.44 | 67 127 | 52 A] 78.85 | 23 Y i Brown | 30-25} + 
125.5 | 102 | 81.27 | 62 40 36 90.00 Br+1 ~ ce celia: 27 + 
127 100 | 78.74 | 59 45 34 75.55 Black i Br+1 rAd 0 
Immature Females 
135 118 | 87.40 | 69 107 | 47 34 72.34 | 23 is = Br+1 |23-20| + 
137 117 | 85.40 | 70 116-1781 34 66.67 | 23 $ : Brown |25-21| + 
1 In describing the eye fold the following abbreviations are used: -++ present; — absent; 0 no record; = slight. 


192 


APPENDIX 
TABLE III. F, HAWAIIAN X CHINESE 
HYBRIDS BETWEEN HawallaAN AND SoutH CHINESE 


Adult Males 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. 

















Head Measurements in Mm. 

















1 Brother of No. 28. 


70.5 


Se | Age ae Height | Height | sont] Arm | of Acm | of He ee | ode 
eight) Stature |v nion tylion | Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting Length| Breadth) Index tal 
lbs. % % % Diam. 

184 Q1 123 | 157.8 | 129.2 | 65.9 | 82.3 | 73.3 146.45 | 5215 ies $2.51 | Lil 

370 48 171 | 176.2 | 144.5 | 67.3 | 93.5 | '77.2 | 43.81 | 53.06 | 165 93.33 

378 ieee 110 | 157.1 | 126.7 | 60.0 | 86.5 | 66.7 | 42.46 | 55.06 | 176 80.11 

411 48 167 | 171.5 | 1389.4 | 64.5 | 92.2 | 74.9 | 43.67 | 53.76 | 176 88.07 

Immature Males 
22 15 166.7 | 136.0 | 62.0 | 82.2 | 74.0 | 44.39 | 49.31 | 183 | 158 86.33 | 117 
28 15 157.5 | 127.5 | 56.0 | 79.4 | 71.5 | 45.40 | 50.41 | 166 | 156 93.97 | 116 
31! 19 169.0 | 137.5 | 66.3 | 91.5 | 71.2 | 42.13 | 54.14 | 188 | 162 86.17 | 127 
56 t hg 165.0 | 135.9 | 61.8 | 85.3 | 74.1 | 44.91 | 51.70 | 176 | 157 89.20 | 125 
75 17 ... | 160.4 | 180.5 | 58.5 | 80.7 | 72.0 | 44.89 | 50.31 | 170 | 153 90.00 | 113 

155 16 126 | 158.8 | 129.0 | 62.3 | 86.2 | 66.7 | 42.00 | 54.28 | 177 | 152 85.87 | 119 

166 19 162 | 176.8 | 143.5 | 61.8 | 91.6 | 81.7 | 46.27 | 51.81 | 200 | 155 77.50 | 121 

354 19 132 | 160.7 | 132.6 | 60.6 | 86.9 | 72.0 | 44.80 | 54.07 | 171 | 148 SO;55 1 vies 

471 17 112 | 153.6 | 124.6 | 54.8 | 81.7 | 69.8 | 45.44 |'53.19 | 174 | 138 79.31 

485 bee 105 | 165.1 | 135.5 | 64.2 | 84.0 | 71.3 | 43.19 | 50.87 | 165 | 144 87.27 

Adult Females 
5* 40 . | 161.0] 132.0 | 61.8 | 84.5 | 70.2 | 43.60 | 52.48 | 175 | 152 86.85 | 120 
88 18 . | 157.8 | 125.2 | 54.3 | 83.8 |} 70.9 | 44.93 | 53.107 173 (aise 88.43 | 114 

120 Q1 114 | 160.8 | 131.9 | 62.6 | 86.5 | 69.3 | 43.1 | 53.79 | 182 | 148 81.31 | 107 

196 18 ... | 161.6 | 129.5 | 59.2 | 84.7 | 70.3 | 43.5 | SAD IFS aioe 87.86 | 118 

292 19 110 | 160.7 | 131.0| 61.3 | 84.9 | 69.7 | 43.37 | 52.83 | 163 | 133 81.59 

300 39 115 | 155.4 | 126.9 | 61.5 | 89.9 | 65.4 | 42.08 | 57.85 | 162 | 145 89.51 

320 23 96 | 148.0 | 121.2 | 57.3 | 81.5 | 63.9 | 43.17 | 55.07 | 157 | 136 86.62 

Se 24 154 | 168.7 | 138.0 | 62.2 | 90.4 | 75.8 | 44.93 | 53.59 | 169 | 149 88.16 

340 32 102 | 150.3 | 124.3 | 56.7 | 82.0 | 67.6 | 44.98 | 54.56 | 162 | 145 89.51 

452 28 122°} 157.7 | 128.9 ee 85.6 Meese 49.52 | 54.28 | 172 | 137 79.65 

502 35 139 | 150.9 | 120.6 | 55.8 | 79.0 | 64.8 | 42.94 | 52.35 | 164 | 142 86.58 

Immature Females 

262 14 ... | 149.6 | 121.2 | 54.3 | 78.5 | 66.9 | 44.72 | 52.47 | 179 | 146 81.56 | 109 

443 We 134 | 151.2 | 121.3 | 54.5 | 84.1 | 66.8 | 44.18 | 55.62 | 165 | 136 82.42 

435 We 100 | 154.5 | 124.8 | 54.3 | 82.3 45.63 | 53.27 | 161 | 140 86.95 


2 Wife of No. 4 (Hawaiian), mother of Nos. 6-15 (Backcross F: Hawaiian). 








Face Measurements in Mm. 


TABLE III. 


APPENDIX 


F, HAWAIIAN X CHINESE 
HYBRIDS BETWEEN HawallAN AND SoutH CHINESE 


Adult Males 











Descriptive 





193 



































: Nasion ia] |Nasion| B; 
rogue (Mex: [index | foe | nual | Net Nesal| Index | hin EEN UE Veena ae 
Ht. HE. 
139 117 | 84.17 | 70 119 | 52 43 82.69 Wavy | Brown |36-29| — 
143 116 | 81.12 | 66 54 36 66.67 - Br-1 39 st 
130 111 | $5.38 | 63 48 38 79.17 Straight | Brown 4] 0 
136 119 | 87.50 | 72 53 AO | 75.47 Curly y 0 
Immature Males 
143 116 | 81.11 | 81 112 | 58 45 77.59 | 40 uy Straight} Brown |35-32| 0 
138 118 | 85.50 | 69 hid) OS 37 69.81 | 23 Sl wavy . 45-38 | 0 
146 138 | 94.52 | 87 111 | 58 JBea| Co.ne | 23 i - . 51-44] 0 
149 119 | 79.86 | 70 1S} 53 42 79.24 | 47 rs Wavy Br+1 |40-41] — 
138 119 | 86.23 | 71 108 | 49 37 75.01 | 23 # Straight} Brown | 29-28| 0 
144 113 | 78.47 | 68 120 | 49 Oley 10-01) 20 % Slwavy| Br+1 |32-28) = 
148 126 | 85.13 | 73 128 | 52 41 78.85 Br+1 | Straight] Brown |54-47| + 
129 | 109 | $4.50 | 65 50 | 40 | 80.00 Blak {| “ | Brti | oO | + 
128 | 101 | 78.91 | 61 44 | 88 | 86.36 : ‘ é 49 | + 
128 | 107 | 83.59 | 56 43 | 87 | 86.05 Brt+1 | “ | Brown = 
Adult Females 
138 109 | 78.98 | 63 113 | 49 36 73.47 | 47 | Black 5 Brown | 22-20} — 
136 111 | 81.60 | 68 Pioeical 42 82.35 | 47 : Br+1 | 26-25) = 
134 115 | 85.82 | 68 117 | 49 39 79.59 | 24 3 - Brown | 28-23| = 
144 115 | 79.86 | 67 123 |. 51 ~|-36 70.59 | 24 y Wavy Br+1 1-9 | — 
124 101 | 81.45 | 62 AS 3 83.72 1-16 “Y Wiry Brown 29 0 
126 99 | 78.57 | 63 49 39 79.59 8 Ky Straight} Br-+-1 20 0 
124 102 | 82.26 | 62 45 36 80.60 | 15 if F : 26 0 
136 117 | 86.03 | 65 50 40 80.00 | 14 ms “ A3 a 
127 107 | 84.25 | 62 43 40 93.02 | 10 . Brown 20 0 
127 117 | 92.12 | 65 46 36 =| 78.26 . o Br+1 + 
127 109 | 85.83 | 68 47 of Coeds 2 4 Brown ob 
Immature Females 

132 106 | 80.30 | 61 |_116 | 45 43 95.55 | 24 : Wavy | Brown | 23-20} 0 
123 107 | 86.99 | 56 39 39 {100.00 sd Straight} Br-++1 0 
126 109 | 86.51 | 67 46 oi 80.43 3 Wavy 0 





en 





194 


Subject 
No. 


61 
315 
446 


160 
250 
479 


158 
193 
383 


73 
10° 
297 
326 
339 
453 


63 

93 
42 
191 
461 
472 
466 
469 


Age 


21 
38 
18 


17 
16 
15 


25 


adult 


19 


23 
19 
23 
20 
20 
23 


Weight} Stature 


lbs. 


120 
168 
123 


‘175 
175 
163 


128 
149 
129 
145 


100 
102 
132 
121 






165.4 
158.0 
149.0 


173.0 
163.0 
166.8 


160.7 
153.0 
160.5 
167.4 
153.6 
153.9 


111.5 
141.4 
165.0 
115.5 
152.4 
160.9 
172.2 
156.5 


APPENDIX 


TABLE III (continued) 


F, Hawaman X CHINESE 


Adult Females 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. 








Height | Height Index 
of Ac- | of Dac-| els Arm_ | of Arm 
romion | tylion | Sitting | Length | Length 


J 












126.8 | 62.3 
130.2 | 61.7 
131.2 | 60.7 


64.5 | 40.72 
68.5 | 42.84 
70.5 | 44.15 


Immature Females 


135.3 | 63.6 | 86.3 | 71.7 | 43.35 
127.5 | 57.3 | 86.2 | 70.2 | 44.43 
121.0 | 55.5 | 76.9 | 65.5 | 43.96 


Bacxcross F; X Hawatrran 


Adult Males 


141.0 | 63.2 | 85.3 | 77.8 | 44.97 
133.5 | 59.3 | 86.6 | 74.2 | 45.52 


135.0 | 58.9 | 85.9 | 76.1 | 45.62 
| 


Adult Females 


128.5 | 57.8 | 85.9 | 70.7 | 43.99 
122.5 | 55.0 | 83.0 | 67.5 | 44.12 
130.4 | 60.0 | 84.3 | 70.4 | 43.86 
137.4] 59.3 | 88.9 | 78.1 |.46.65 
125.4 | 58.0 | 83.9 | 67.4 | 43.88 
125.8 | 58.8 | 82.6 | 67.0 | 43.53 


Immature Males 


139.8 | 63.5 | 89.5 | 76.3 | 44.49 
112.0 | 49.9 | 75.5 | 62.1 | 43.92 
132.0 | 59.0 | 85.0 | 73.0 | 44.24 

90.5 | 42.1 | 64.5 | 48.4 | 41.90 
124.8 | 54.7 | 77.3 | 70.1 | 46.00 
130.8 | 58.2 | 82.9 | 72.6 | 45.12 
139.4 | 61.8 | 87.0 | 77.6 | 45.06 
128.5 | 55.8 | 81.7 | 72.7 | 46.45 


Index 
of Ht. 
Sitting 


(7) 


52.53 
53.91 
51.97 


52.18 
54.56 
51.61 


49.31 
53.13 
51.50 


53.45 
54.25 
52.52 
53.11 
54.62 
53.67 


52.19 
53.39 
51.51 
55.84 
50.72 
51.52 
50.52 
52.20 





Head Measurements in Mm. 


Length] Breadth} [ydex 


184 
178 
170 


178 
186 
195 


i 


183 
175 
170 
159 
165 


195 
195 
178 
161 
or fi 
176 
172 





161 


139 


148 
141 


150 
155 
138 


163 
147 
147 


151 
140 
151 
141 
135 
142 


149 
145 
158 
145 
146 
136 
138 
138 





Canuc 
alte 
% 


79.43 
86.55 
82.46 


81.52 
87.08 
81.18 


91.57 
79.03 
75.38 


84.83 
76.50 
86.29 
82.94 
84.91 
86.06 


76.41 
74.36 
88.76 
90.06 
85.38 
id Bee | 
80.23 
85.71 





Min. 
Fron- 
tal 
Diam. 


107 


116 
114 


137 
118 


127 
E165) 


125 
122 
ty 
100 


8 Children of 2 No. 5 (F; Hawaiian X Chinese) X oO No. 4 (Hawaiian). 


APPENDIX 195 


TABLE III (continued) 
F, Hawattan X CHINESE 
Adult Females 



































Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
Bizygo- Nasion| Facial i i pe Nasal : : 
: Men- Nasal | Nasal H H E E 
Dh ton ee ion ; Ht. | Bth. ome Catce pect Color [Strength pola 
ie 
130 109 51 35 68.63 Black | Straight] Br+1 |26-19| — 
131 111 ea ea? | 42 | 82.35 * ‘ . 20 0 
125 110 Ar 37 ab ror? “ : sf 0 
Immature Females 
135 | 113 | 83.70 | 68. | 105 | 48. | 34 | 70.83 |23—| Brown | Wavy | Br—1 | 28-23] — 
144 122 | 84.72 | 75 126 | 57 45 | 78.95 | 23 | Black y Brown | 32-28} + 
119 101 | 84.87 | 57 Bek 130 S623) C2 Bic... « cf Br+1 + 
Bacxcross F; X Hawattan 
Adult Males 
154 116 | 75.32 | 69 PT NEGS 43 | 78.18 | 23 3 Curly 9 60-43 | — 
147 126 | 85.71 | 73 132 | 52 43 | 82.69 | .. Me Wavy | Brown |48-36| + 
142 124 | 87.32 | 67 ee be 46 | 88.46 | .. = Curly Br+1 45 + 
Adult Females 
143 101-7 77.62 | 68 =| 104 | 51 40 | 78.43 |40— i S Brown | 25-20} — 
139 106 | 76.26 | 61 107 | 46 40 | 86.96 |40— = “ Br+1 | 22-23) — 
135 109 | 80.74 | 64 in Pes 4 41 78.85 | 13 . Straight | Brown 206 4. 
130 112 | 86.15 | 66 ese Ae 389 | 82.98 | 15 ¢ Wavy | Br+1 29 0 
126 103 | 81.75 | 61 PE 4 38 | 90.48 | 12 us Straight o 25 4. 
130 116 | 89.23 | 63 ee eou 42 |84.00] .. a Wavy M: “- 











Immature Males 





142 118° 83.11 | 71 Basia, [Oo 40 75.47 |46—| Black Curly | Brown | 50-49] — 
139 107 | 76.98 | 62 ... | 45 44 97.78 | 40 = Straight; Br-+1 /|21-18/ — 
140 113 | 80.71 | 68 ee GOT 40 70.17 | 39 : Wavy Br+2 | .. + 
125 100 | 80.00 | 65 SOS ents} 33 86.84 | .. . Br+1 A 
127 116 | 91.34 | 71 Peeniou 41 B20 i. “s Curly : fe, + 
126 | 106 | 84.13 | 64 pe i45 |) 88° 8444 7. : Wavy | Brown | 38 | + 
129 114 | 88.37 | 69 ‘cual ey 36 1ODa lt X, > Straight} Br+1 + 
129 109 | 84.50 | 62 ee Bey 4] ff Od | Rae 5 . s + 











196 APPENDIX 


TABLE III (continued) 
Immature Females 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 












Height | Height Index | Index Ceph- | Min. 














j : Height | A f A f Ht. li Fron- 
oh chee Age | Weight} Stature ie oa Sitting lees ek Siege Length] Breadth ica tal 
lbs. % % % Diam 
118 9 Behe 103.0 | 44.3 | 70.3 58.7 | 44.64 | 53.46 | 190 71.05 | 106 
123 5 ae 83.5 | 33.8 | 58.2 | 49.77 | 46.23 | 54.14 | 176 77.84 1 101 
133 10 — 104.0 | 46.0 HAeS 58.0 | 44.44 | 54.64 | 167 88.62 | 114 
95 14 Se 128.5 | 59.6 83.6 68.9 | 44.17 | 53.59 | 167 87.43 | 116 
995 ili PN 121.8 | 52.4 78.5 69.4 | 45.39 | 51.34 | 170 87.65 | 111 
227 17 ae 125.5 | 57.3 84.8 68.2 | 43.89 | 54.57 | 190 77.89 | 106 
239 17 Pea 131.2 | 61.7 87.3 69.5 | 438.01 | 54.02 | 171 89.47 | 112 
Q45 16 Soap 128.8 | 57.7 87.0 71.1 | 44.55 | 54.51 | 174 94.25 | 113 
951 15 as: 124.8 | 54.3 81.2 | 70.5 | 45.90 | 52.86 | 173 82.08 | 103 
959 ily Lee 122.0 | 52.8 80.5 69.2 | 46.13 | 53.67 | 171 84.80 | 112 
Q71 13 as 121.4 | 51.0 76.0 70.4 | 47.41 | 51.18 | 182 78.57 | 118 
Bacxcross F, X CHINESE 
Males 
80 15 ... | 145.4 1117.9 | 49.9 74.6 68.0 | 46.77 | 51.31 | 178 | 148 83.15 | 117 
376 29 150 | 170.9 | 140.2 | 64.0 91.0 76.2 | 44.59 | 53.25 | 173 | 153 88.44 
Females 
964 16 16622 a1 e561 84.1 69.6 | 44.85 | 54.19 | 175 | 148 84.57 | 112 
428 16 90 | 147.3 | 119.2 | 57.0 76.9 62.2 | 42.23 | 52.21 | 166 | 1382 79.52 
‘455 16 Pe MILD eo ALe3 Te topes’ 76.4 67.7 | 44.77 | 50.51 | 164 | 139 84.76 
OrserR HawatAN-CuHinese Mixtures 4 
Males 
395 34 136 | 172.8 | 141.0 | 65.1 92.5 75.9 | 43.92 | 53.53 | 171 | 146 85.38 
353 18 135 | 168.0 | 138.2 |} 59.9 85.6 78.3 | 46.61 | 50.95 | 174 | 134 77.01 
Females 
969 14 ... | 158.0 | 128.9 | 57.8 | 82.8 71.1 | 45.00 | 52.41 | 181 | 146 80.66 | 116 


335 18 138 | 173.3 | 142.3 | 67.8 | 88.7 | 74.5 | 42.99 | 51.18 | 171 | 141 | 82.46 
440 18 110 | 156.9 | 127.3 | 56.6 | 84.1 | 70.7 | 45.06 | 53.60 | 172 | 139 | 80.81 
474 16 121 | 160.5 | 130.3 | 59.1 | 83.3 | 69.3 | 43.18 | 51.90 | 180 | 1387 | 76.11 
488 18 135 | 165.4 | 133.6 | 58.0 | 86.9 | 75.6 | 45.71 | 52.54 | 180 | 143 | 79.44 
500 17 ... | 158.0 | 128.2 | 58.9 | 81.4 | 69.3 | 43.86 | 51.52 | 169 | 144 | 85.21 








4 Ancestry doubtful; probably $ to } Chinese. 


APPENDIX 197 


TABLE III (continued) 


Immature Females 








Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 

















kd hae ee eae ae Nasal | Nasal hee Skin Hair Hair Eye Eye 
Diam. a %, Gas Dame) fl. | Bth. gy,  |Color| Color Form Color [Strength Fold 
123 101 64 47 35 74.47 | 40 | Black Kinky | Br+1 /|14-12} — 
127 98 57 3 | 41 34 82.93 | 23 = Straight | Br+2 deed (aN os 
137 | 100 61 46 | 38 | 82.61 | 23 : 3 Brown |10-9 | — 
138 107 66 55 37 67.27 |47— “s Wavy . 23-20 | -+- 
139 114 66 51 40 78.43 | 23 i 23—10)) -— 
142 114 69 53 40 | 75.47 |23—| Red br - Br—1 |30-32| 0 
142 111 70 53 39 73.59 | 24 | Black | Straight] Brown |30-27| — 
142 120 73 55 38 69.09 | 24 | Br+1 Curly . 28-25 | = 
129 113 73 52 38 | 73.08 | 24 | Black Wavy i 17-16| = 
138 113 69 A5 37 82.22 | 23 | Br+1 a Br—1 |19-13| + 
133 _| 117 72 51 | 41 | 80.39 | 23 a Straight | Brown | 26-23) + 





Bacxcross F, * CHInesEe 


Males 
140 116 | 82.86 | 69 112 | 53 38 71.70 |39—| Black Wavy . 33-34] — 
141 112 | 79.43 | 69 ee 53 43 Olek Omens x Curly Br+1 48 — 
Females 
142 109 | 76.76 | 65 128 | 48 36 75.00 | 24 . Straight} Br-++-1 |31-25; + 
122 115 | 94.26 | 60 peer Ie Ac 38 88.37 ee ape Power + 
122 107 | 87.70 | 58 Ber ad st SOMMER Wire ore al etree Black | Straight} Br-+1 -+ 
OrgaEeR HawarAn-Cutnese Mrxturss 4 
Males 
131 118 | 90.08 | 68 hee 52 36 6923 sae . Brown 56 oe 
127 125 | 98.438 | 79 are 53 AA 83.02) .. - Wavy es 42 + 
Females 
141] 112 | 79.43 | 65 122 | 46 41 89.13 | 24 “ Straight . 29-23) + 
129 107 | 82.95 | 61 oe AT 42 89.36 | .. is “ Br+1 -+ 
125 105 | 84.00 | 61 ne A 39 OT ebO MOR. Y Wavy Br+1 -+ 
121 111 | 91.73 | 66 Be 46 39 oeiliel IL oe is Straight Br+1 + 
128 113 | 88.28 | 67 ee apes 37 Ves ri Al ures sat “ Br+1 + 
120 | 105 | 87.50 | 60 ee ao leoo iat. |) Black ‘s St 














198 APPENDIX 


TABLE IV. HAWAIIAN WHITE HYBRIDS 
Adult F,; Males 


Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 












4 a i] 
oO 
x3) Pedigree | # ae ee a = (5 5 
® pal falls a> 2 “oS © = 
a -eq 
= [sf] mo ws i) 3 o dg 
2 o om 6 = & or) q uv Org pet ee s 
5,0 80 On vo os vu i OF is Fa 
ne <i e2 1 qa Ee Mm |Oegs (San0q 

















| 














1281) 47 H/G 260 | 176.8} 143.7| 64.2) 94.0} 79.5| 44.97 | 53.17} 206 
144 | 25 H/Se 197 | 179.0| 148.4} 65.3} 93.2| 83.1] 46.42] 52.07} 198 | 160 | 80.81 
145 | 35 H/Se ... | 161.6} 133.0) 58.9| 83.1) 74.1} 45.85 | 51.42} 182 | 165 | 90.66) 113 
149 | 30 H/G 215 | 177.8| 146.0} 67.9) 94.5} 78.1] 43.93 | 53.15] 196 | 159 | 81.12 
367 | 42 H/Am 170 | 171.3| 140.7| 65.1} 92.9| 75.6| 44.13] 54.23| 177 | 159 | 89.83 
400 | 19 H/Ca 132 | 166.3) 136.5; 61.2| 84.1) 75.3) 45.27| 50.57| 184 | 138 | 75.00 
403 | 65 H/Se 170 | 174.2| 144.8} 65.8| 90.7| 79.0) 45.35| 52.07} 184 | 148 | 80.43 
408 | 55 H/Am 230 | 171.4) 141.0} 62.4| 89.1) 75.6] 45.85 | 51.98| 195 | 166 | 85.13 
417 | 51 H/Am 191 | 181.4} 150.1] 65.5| 92.6| 84.6) 46.64) 51.05| 152 | 148 | 81.32 
418 | 64 H/W 180 | 175.0| 141.9} 62.¢| 9%.7| 79.7) 45.54] 52.97] 184 | 156 | 84.78 
347 | 21 H/P 160 | 163.2) 134.7| 61.9| 87.9| 72.8) 44.60] 53.86) 180 | 147 | 81.67 
364 | 29 H/sp 165 | 165.7) 135.7| 60.0| 87.8) 75.7) 45.68| 52.98; 177 | 151 | 85.31 
391 | 50 H/P 160 | 170.2| 137.2| 56.6| 88.4) 80.6) 47.35| 51.94) 188 | 154 | 81.91 
493 | 20 H/P 135 | 165.4) 185.3) 60.0| 87.3] 75.3) 45.53| 52.78| 177 | 150 | 84.75 


fat 
for) 
ae 
ee) 
pe 
S 
ae] 
— 
we wv 
=~ 





at 
w~ 
is) 






































F, Females 








86 | 23 | H/am 116 | 165.8} 135.8) 65.2| 88.9| 70.6| 42.58) 52.98) 183 | 156 | 85.25| 109 
9327) 35 H/Ir ... | 156.6} 129.4) 63.8} 86.4) 65.6} 41.89| 55.17| 189 | 153 | 80.95| 113 
296 | 50 H/E 180 | 166.9| 139.4) 65.8) 89.0! 73.6 | 44.09 | 53.33) 167 | 146 | 87.43 
328 | 18 H/Sw 135 | 167.4| 138.4| 65.0} 86.6 73.4) 43.84) 51.73| 164 | 140 | 85.37 









































439 | 18 H/Am ... | 156.2} 127.2| 59.7; 86.4) 67.5| 43.21) 55.31) 165 | 142 | &6.06 
310 | 24 | H/Am-r | 154 | 161.8] 132.7) 63.3) 85.5) 69.4) 42.69 | 52.84] 170 | 144 | 84.71 
9853) 73 H/E 140 | 164.0) 135.5] ...| 88.7) ... | .... | 64.09) 150 | 146 5Siit 





F, Males Immature 








48 | 14 H/G ... | 166. | 133.0} 55.5| 85.0| 77.5) 46.68) 51.20) 1&8 | 155 | $2.45; 113 
486 | 15 No/H 115 | 156.9) 127.0} 55.3} 81.2] 71.7| 45.70| 51.75) 172 | 136 | 79.09 
382 | 17 H/P 140 | 168.0] 136.1) 59.4) $9.2) 76.7| 45.65] 53.09 | 170 | 147 | 86.4'7 








F, Females Immature 





























98 | 12 H/G ... | 156.6) 125.3] 57.7| 78.8) 67.6| 43.16] 50.32| 178 | 149 | 83.71} 113 
9214) 16 H/Ww ... | 157.5] 126.2) 57.2| 85.0| 69.0) 43.87] 53.97) 181 | 151 | 83.43) 116 
225 old. H/G ... | 163.6| 182.7| 61.7| 86.5) 71.0| 43.39] 52.87) 171 | 145 | $4.80) 108 
863 | 16 H/Ir we 152.5| 123.3) 54.8) 84.2| 68.5] 44.92] 55.21) 169 | 149 | 88.17| 107 
265 | 17 H/Am ... | 158.5] 129.4} 57.1) 81.5) 72.3| 45.61] 51.42) 179 | 147 | 82.12} 107 

1 Husband of No. 232 (F1); father of Nos. 129-134 and 233 (F2). 3 Old-measurements not included in averages. 


2 Wife of No. 128 (Fi); mother of Nos. 129-134 and 233 (F2). 4 Mother a “Red Hawaiian” (Ehu). 























































































































APPENDIX 199 
TABLE IV. HAWAIIAN WHITE HYBRIDS 
Adult F, Males 
Facial Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
i=) fe} =I 
1 » a, aS ES ce aa | aq 
Sex| S2hiaqy | 832/58) .8) 8) ae | es] ns se 5 8 
Sef] 8o30| So | 8o3) 2 | oo | 88 | ou | BS ie ‘a ears E 
RAQ | Zem) eas) zen) eA | 2m | zm | Ze] ao EO ore, RO a 
165 | 137 | 83.03} '76 | 150 52 45 | 66.54| 23—| Black Wavy Br-1 74-68 
155 | 125 | 80.65; 70/130 | 53) 41 | 77.36] 23— i Curly . 50-48 
148 | 121 | 81.76) 70 | 134 57 44 | 77.19} 24 # Wavy Br 33-25 
150 | 129 | 86.00} 67 | 128 49 AZ | 85.71) 23 4 Curly Hazel 77-85 
139 | 123 | 88.49; 68 50 49 | 98.00 Wavy Br—-1 47 
127 | 112 | 88.19} 65 46 | 43 | 93.48] ... Br+1 Curly Br 52 
137 | 130 | 94.89| 75 58 | 43 | 74.14) 10 Br Wavy Br-1 
152 | 120 | 78.95} 71 56 40 | 71.43 Br+1 ia Br 
to7- 126} 91.97) 75 56 41 | 73.21 “ ‘ Blue 
144 | 128 | 88.89| 73 61 43 | 70.49] ... Black s Br-1 Se: 
129 | 109 | 84.50; 61 49 Bot ieo.|. LO Br+1 Straight Br 60 
136 | 118 | 86.76) 75 53 36 | 67.92 Black Wavy - 38 
136 | 116 | 85.29; 73 55 46 | 83.64 Ns Curly Br+1 46 
134 | 113 | 84.33; 63 A6 41 | 89.13 Br+1 Wavy Br 46 
F, Females 
139 | 115 | 82.73; 69 | 113 56 35 | 62.50) 23 Br+1 Wavy Br 29-29 
152 | 122 | 80.26) 67 | 134] 54) 41 | 75.92) 23 Black Frizzy Br—1 | 28-25 
130 | 126 | 96.92| 73 56 35 | 62.50|° 7 " Straight Br Q7 
129 | 110 | 85.27) 68 50 33 | 66.00} 14 Br Wavy Br+1 42 
127 | 110 | 86.61} 63 46 Oe | 15.9114, ‘ Br ae 
129 | 111 | 86.05| 64 AT B50) THAT) A38. Br+1 ss Br 24 
125 | 109 | 84.50} 62 49 39 | 79.59| 9 Black s Br-1 
F, Males Immature 
144 | 120 | 83.33; 73 | 113 55 39 | 70.91] 23— Br Wavy Br+1 32-28 
121 | 104 | 85.95) 62 45 3a oat BF EWG: Straight Br-1 St 
125 | 112 | 89.60! 63 49 38 | 77.55 Black i Br+1 58 
F, Females Immature 
131 7 117 | 89.31; 72) 114 53 37 | 69.81) 24 Black Wavy Br-1 23-23 
142 | 109 | 76.76) 64 | 120 AT 87 41273.72 Red Br _ Br—2 27-23 
134 | 114 | 85.07) 67 | 1¥1 52 S669-251 2. Br+2 Wavy Br 32-28 
135 | 102 | 75.56) 61 | 115 43 32 | 74.42} 23 Br+ 1 “ Br 28-24 
133 | 114 | 85.71) 67 | 107 53 36 | 67.92) 23 Black Curly Br 26-21 








































































































































































































200 APPENDIX 
TABLE IV (continued). 
F, Females Immature 
Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 
8 abet ae 3 ro aye us 
26/| & So 3 Se |38 |e | ES tobe jose gi 6 |‘eo |85s 
az | <a Eo a mq | moO] oa] 44 <u R Sane) ao (ogee Sea 
955 | 12 H/G 140.3} 110.8) 48.9} 70.5) 61.9| 44.12| 50.25| 175 | 140 | 80.00) 114 
456 | 17 H/E 155.2| 125.4} 57.8) ~2.2| 67.6) 43.56) 53.31] 170 | 137 | 80.59 
491 | 17 H/Ir 160.4) 131.4) 58.3) 84.6] 72.6) 45.26) 53.07) 176 | 142 | 80.68) ... 
156 | 16 H/P be 150.8) -122.2) 55.38) ... | 66.9) 44.36) .... 175 | 155 | $&.57 | 118 
444 | 17 H/P 98 | 154.9; 126.3| 58.8| 82.7) 67.5| 43.58| 53.39; 170 | 141 | 82.94 
487 | 16 H/P 938 | 150.4) 123.4) 55.8) 80.5| 64.0) 42.95) 53.52) 162 | 147 | 90.74 
438 | 14 | /Je am 141.2) 112.9} 50.1) 74.2) 62.8) 44.47) 52.55) 1'70 | 1386 | 80.00 
F, Adult Males 
276 | ad HWw/HW 150 | 166.9) 132.5] 59 87.7| 73.5| 44.03) 52.55| 168 | 144 | $5.71 
337 | 29 | nw/Huw | 154 | 168.9] 135.8] 62.5] 90.0| 73.3| 43.39) 53.29} 184 | 152 | 82.61 
425 | 32 Hw/HW 187 | 167.9| 140.0| 63.1) 86.2| 76.9| 45.80} 51.34) 190 | 146 | 76.84 
F, Adult Females 
280 | 36 | uw/uw | 193 | 173.5) 143.4] 65.2| 92.5) 78.2| 45.07] 53.31] 170 | 147 | 86.47 
302 | 30 HAm/HAm 3 se ote 123-91 OS: S18 8257 Goal: eee fetal 169°) 187 1-807 
303 | 25 HG/HE 185 | 161.1| 133.4) 60.4) 85.0! 73.0} 45.31] 52.76) 175 | 153 | 87.43 
305 | 18 | HAmHIr 125 | 158.5| 1380.7| 64.5] 82.4) 66.2] 41.76] 51.99| 166 | 133 | 80.12 
489 | 18 HG/HP 138 | 169.9| 140.9| 63.6| 86.7) '77.3| 45.50) 51.03) 173 | 130 | 75.14 
F, Males Immature 
165 | 18 HAm/HAm 85 | 149.2} 120.0} 52.5) 72.6] 67.5| 45.24) 45.66} 196 | 142 | 72.45) 109 
179 | 18 | nw/uw | 142 | 171.2) 138.6) 63.2] 89.8) 75.4] 44.04] 52.45 | 193 | 155 | 80.31} 120 
23|17| uw/Hw 159.7| 127.5) 57.3) 83.9| 70.2) 43.95| 52.54] 188 | 157 | 83.51} 119 
26 | 1% A Paes 172.1) 139.2] 62.0| 86.0] 77.2) 44.85} 49.97| 182 | 161 | 88.46) 125 
467 | 16 |HAm/HAm 90 | 161.5) 124.8] 62.0} 82.0) 72.8) 45.07) 50.77] 178 | 139 | 78.09 
484 | 18 HW/HW 120 | 155.4) 125.3] 54.9} 83.1) '70.4) 45.30| 53.47 | 177 | 189 | 78.53 
F, Females Immature 
96 | 16 HWw/HW 160 129.8) 58.3) 86.4) 71.5) 44.68 | 54.00} 184 | 147 | '79.89} 115 
914 | 17 Xf 169.3| 1382.0) 58.8) 85.3) 73.2) 438.23| 50.38] 182 | 156 | 85.71] 111 
222 | 16 a 154.1| 123.8) 57.0) $4.2| 66.8] 43.34] 54.64) 185 | 143 | 77.30) 106 
252 | 15 bg ras 158.3) 126.5] 57.5| 84.2) 69.0} 43.59 | 53.19| 185 | 144 | 77.84] 107 
433 | 16 HFr/HE 105 | 158.2) 131.8; 61.7| 81.2) '70.1| 44.31] 51.65] 176 | 129 | 73.30 
496 | 17 HW/HW ae 160.2| 133.3] 60.2) 81.0| 73.1} 45.63} 50.56) 183 | 141 | 77.05 
465 | 17 HP/HAm 111 | 164.0} 133.4] 61.0) 84.1} 72.4|) 44.15} 51.28} 164 | 1384 | 81.71 












































—— = 


APPENDIX 


TABLE IV (continued). 


F, Females Immature 


201 




















Facial Measurements in Mm. 





Descriptive 
































































































































bee | ee Beads) 4} 3 
eedlaee| os |22e) sh | eh| ee) ee | es 48 » A o6 a 
Sea | zen Gex|zen| sa | em | 2s | Zee] #S nS Hee gS a 
123 | 107 | 86.99| 67 | 108 49 34 | 69.39 | 23 Br+1 Straight Br 13-16 
126 | 112 | 88.89 65 1D 38 | $4.44 Br+2 Wavy Br 
130 | 106 | 81.54 CO sh. 41 36 | 87.80) ... Black - ys ey, 
141 | 110 | 78.01 62 | 123 AA 39 | 78.01) 24 Black Curly Br 25-22 
126 | 108 | 85.71 60 Al 36 | 87.80 Br+1 Wavy Br+1 
127.4103} 81.10) . 55 A5 3S: 13.00 Br+1 Curly Blue 
118 | 100 | 84.75 56 39 39 |100.00 Br+1 Wavy Br+1 
Fy, Adult Males 
129 | 112 | 86.82) 68 49 86°1-78.40. 1-12 Rea Wavy Br—2 ok te 
131 | 117 | 89.31 68 48 354 78.991 12 Black s Br 57 
136 | 127 | 93.38| 66 57 44 | 77.19 Ne Br+1 
F, Adult Females 
129 | 111 | 86.05 62 AS 40 | 83.33} 10 Br+1 Wavy Br Sy 
118 | 106 | 59.83 63 45 31 | 68.89 | 12 Br Straight Br—2 95 
125 | 119 | 95.20 73 46 39 | 84.78] 11 Br+1 Wavy Peer 30 
122 | 109 | 89.34 62 47 33 | 70.21| 10 Br+1 a Br—1 22 
121 | 109 | 90.08 62 AT 35 | 74.47 Br+1 Curly Br—-1 
F, Males Immature 
130 | 113 | 86.92; 73/110) 47 | 36 | 76.60) ... | Br+l1 | Straight | Hazel | 22-21 
142 | 122 | 85.92; 69 | 123 49 42 | 85.71) 24 Black Wavy Br 48-36 
141 | 112 | 83.69 72 | 119 55 37 | 67.27) 40—-| Black ? Br+1 48-36 
146 | 130 | 89.04; 80 | 118 60 40 | 66.67) 40 S : Br 44—4,0 
123 | 107 | 86.00| 60 Al | 37 | 90.24 Br+2 vf : ae 
126 | 111 | 88.10; 61 49 39 | 79.59 Black : Br+1 35 
F, Females Immature 
143 | 112 | 78.32) 59 | 118 4S Si). 77.08) 23 Black Wavy Br+1 27-25 
136 | 123 | 90.44} '71 | 126 54 37 | 68.52) 23—| Br+1 a Blue 25-20 
140 | 115 | 82.14} 65 | 121 46 34 | 73.91] 24 Black e Br 28-28 
135 | 113 | 83.70| 68 | 117 50 37 | 74.00) 24 : - Br—1 28-26 
115 | 105 | 91.30| 62 4A $2 | 72.73 Br+1 Lt Blue 
124 | 114 | 91.94 65 50 34 | 68.00 Br+1 Wavy Br 
122 | 108 | 88.52| 64 AS | S29) °71:11 Br-1 Curly | Lt Blue 


























































































































202 APPENDIX 
TABLE IV (continued) 
F, Family — Children of Fi no. 128 and F; no. 232 
Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 
ae : * 6 § 6.8 oa “ a | oe 8 
8 Pedere | | 8 | ao | S122] oleae [ae |e 
oye ee ‘Bg 3 | 28 | ea | 2s | BS She eae 5 ® | eo |.69.3 
azZz| < ex A md | mA | ma | 4 eS Sms! 5 mg | OFS SEA 
129 |%3 | uir/He 98.2| 76.7) 33.0| 57.4) 43.7| 44.51] 58.45] 173 | 143 | $2.66] 99 
130 |'7 ~ 128.3| 96.3) 43.4) 65.1) 52.9| 41.23) 50.74) 182 | 145 | 79.67) 112 
131 |914 c 155.9| 127.5| 60.0) 85.3] 67.5| 438.30) 54.71] 185 | 150 | 81.08} 122 
132 |A13 ¢ 154.1} 126.8| 57.9| 80.4] 68.9| 44.71 | 52.17| 187 | 150 | 80.21} 115 
133 |o'6 109.0} 87.2) 40.6) 63.8) 46.6| 42.75| 58.53) 176 | 142 | 80.68| 102 
134 | 911 : 151.1} 125.0) 60.5| 81.7| 64.5 | 42.69| 54.07) 177 | 142 | 80.23; 110 
135 | 916 . 159.3| 132.0} 61.0) 88.9] 71.0| 44.57 | 55.81] 195 | 148 | 75.90) 125 
136 | 917 i 153.0| 125.2| 59.8) 84.1} 65.4| 42.74) 54.97} 184 | 150 | 81.52) 115 
233 | 99 127.1) 103.3! 47.6! '70.2| 55.7| 43.82| 55.23| 175 | 137 | '78.29| 104 
Backcross X HAWAIIAN 
Adult Males 
100 | 49 HWw/H 174.8| 141.5] 66.4) 92.3] 75.1| 42.96| 53.37} 200 | 160 | 80.00} 119 
O77 | bl HW/H 145 | 176.5) 143.0} 59.5| 93.4} 83.5] 47.31] 52.92] 176 | 156 | 88.64 
401 | 48 | ¢H/4w | 183 | 171.6} 140.8] 62.5) 90.5] 78.3] 45.63] 52.74] 194 | 151 | 77.84 
414 | 40 HW/H 185 | 178.0} 147.0| 66.4} 91.0} 80.6] 45.28] 51.12] 181 | 158 | $7.29 
$21 | 22 H/HP 143 | 178.9} 147.0| 65.2| 90.2| 81.8] 45.72) 50.42| 176 | 153 | 86.93 
390 | 27 HP/H | 150 | 170.6} 140.1] 60.4| 86.9} 79.7] 46.72| 50.94) 180 | 147 | 81.67 
405 | 56 | wreu/a 160 | 173.2| 144.4) 62.1} 90.2| 82.3] 47.52| 52.08) 179 | 144 | 80.45 
Adult F emales 
58 | 20 H/HE 159.8} 129.5| 59.5} 85.2) '70.0| 43.80} 53.32} 182 | 143 | 78.57] 115 
59 | 18 H/HIr 172.3} 142.8] 64.2} 89.9) 78.6] 45.61) 52.18; 175 | 143 | 71.81} 117 
199:| 38 | u/2wH ... | 160.8} 132.0| 62.7| 88.2) 69.3) 43.10) 54.85} 182 | 156 | 85.71) 122 
281 | 40 H/HW 196 | 167.7) 137.7| 65.2} 89.0| 72.5) 43.23] 53.07; 170 | 148 | 87.06 
288 | 32 H/HSc 190 | 157.7| 129.2| 63.7) 89.8| 65.5) 41.53!) 56.94] 168 | 141 | 83.93 
291 | 40 | 2uw/n | 172 | 171.7) 144.4] 67.6) 88.7] 76.8) 44.72] 51.66] 181 | 150 | 82.87 
301 | 18 | H/nAm 95 | 154.1} 126.0} 56.0| 82.2) 70.0| 45.42| 53.34} 173 | 140 | 80.92 
307 | 18 H/HIr 153 | 162.9| 133.0} 62.1} 88.2) '70.9| 43.52) 54.14] 178 | 141 | 79.21 
314 | 36 H/HIr 147 | 161.0) 132.7} 61.8) 83.9| 70.9| 44.03) 52.11} 164 | 152 | 92.68 
323 | 19 | n/2wa | 140 | 160.7| 132.3} 57.3| 83.4) '75.0| 46.67} 51.90} 173 | 138 | 79.77 
325 | 38 | 2wuH/H | 197 | 154.9) 126.8] 57.3} 84.4) 69.5] 44.87] 54.49| 174 | 140 | 80.46 
336 | 18 | HAm/H 130 | 159.2| 129.0| 62.7| 87.7) 66.3| 41.64] 55.09} 175 | 138 | '78.86 
313 | 20 | usp/H® | 125 | 162.6| 13%.6| 51.9| 88.6| 80.7| 49.63) 54.49} 135 | 126 | 93.33 
442 | 31 3puH/H | 145 | 164.7) 185.4) 62.0} 84.9| 73.4] 44.56] 51.55 | 170 | 150 | 88.24 

















5 Negro blood suspected. 





























APPENDIX 


TABLE IV (continued) 


F, Family — Children of Fi no. 128 and F, no. 232 





203 




















Facial Measurements in Mm. 









































eh S 
TURE RE ELS 
mga | zam| ges] zc 
122 | 90 | 73.77] 52 
128 | 105 | 82.03} 60 
140 | 115 | 82.14] 68 
140 | 116 | 82.86] 69 
124) 98 | 79.03| — 
134 | 116 | 86.57| 68 
153 | 127 | 83.01] 73 
143 | 125 | 87.41] 74 
124 | 103 | 83.06) 60 
145 | 132 | 91.03] 75 
143 | 120 | 83.92] 72 
130 | 124 | 95.38| 72 
138 | 135 | 97.83] 80 
125 | 127 |101.60| 74 
138 | 125 | 90.58] 63 
137 | 118 | 86.13] 69 
134 | 122 | 91.73] 71 
133 | 116 | 87.22| 66 
143 | 119 | 83.22] 69 
133 | 114 | 85.71| 67 
126 | 99] 78.57] 58 
133 | 110 | 82.71] 68 
124 | 109 | 87.90; 61 
127 | 111 | 87.40} 63 
122 | 110 | 90.16| 67 
131 | 113 | 86.26| 64 
133 | 116 | 87.22) 69 
126 | 111 | 88.10| 67 
109 | 113 |103.67| 66 
131 | 115 | 87.79| 66 


Bigonial 
Diameter 


116 


114 
107 
126 













































































Descriptive 
Lee s 
ve | gs | BS 38 “8 aE Sees, 
alzelzex| #6 nS safes Ont an 
52 29 | 99.63) Blonde Br—2 ere Br+1 | .... 
41 | 35 | 85.37| very light} Br—1 Wavy | Br+1 /|16-14 
54 39 | 72.22; 23+ Black Curly Br = |32-27 
52 40 | 76.92 23 . ig 30-27 
87 31) 83.78) = light Brown Z Bee 9- 9 
50 31 | 62.00 23 Br+1 Wavy | Br+1 |24-21 
52 40 | 76.92 23 Br ‘ Br |38-32 
53 36 | 67.92 23 Black . . 28-24 
42 34 | 80.95 24 Br+1 | Straight _ 12-12 
9 
Backcross X HAawattan 
Adult Males 
59 39 | 66.10 Q3— Black Curly Br {40-32 
58 42 | 72.41 8 —_ + Br—2 
a2 | | -39 | 75.00 9 Black Wavy Br 
57 40 | 70.18 he a : Br-—1| ... 
5% 40 | 76.92 9 2 : Br+1 | 38— 
50 49 | 98.00 H Br | 67-— 
52 | 44 | 84.62 s Curly | Br+1 
Adult Females 
631° 41) 77.36 23 Black | Straight | Br+1 21-17 
of 39 | 75.00 24 ¥ Wavy | Br-+1 |28-25 
48 40 | 83.35 23 — i S Br—1 |27-29 
49 39 | 79.59 12 Br+1 Curly Br 41 
44} 40 | 90.91 2 Br+1 | Curly— | Br—1 | 28 
52 | 42 | 80.77 1h Black Wavy Br 37 
41 | 37 | 90.24 12 «“ Straight |  “ 17 
50 36 | 72.00 10 os Wavy : 34 
49 36 | 73.47 15 Hf by - 23 
49 41 | 83.67 13 - &: Br+1 ot 
49 39 | 79.89 15 iy Curly | Br+1 35 
AT 37 | 78.22 win Br+1 Wavy | Br+1 28 
48 | 38 | 79.17 15 Black “ Br+1 | 25 
46 | 43 | 93.48 Black Kinky | Black 













































































































































































204 APPENDIX 
TABLE IV (continued) 
Immature Males 
Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 
wa w A te 
~ | a) cD) = = os 46 i) 4 3 =5 
3 one en 2 | 22 | 22/22] 8 lee S| 2 Ae es 
3,9 | & ‘Do a SE [da les Pha Igee a $ | eg |d8s 
AZ| < Es A me | mo | ma | <a aoe 4 So | Oss lsca 
GA | 17 H/HW 171.1) 140.0) 58.9] 35.4) 81.1| 47.39 210 | 163 | .77.62| 126 
40 | 16 H/HW 173.0) 139.0| 57.0] 89.0; 82.0] 47.40 195 | 148 | 75.90} 118 
46 | 13 HW/H 152.5; 123.0) 54.0| 76.0} 69.0) 45.24 188 | 154 | 81.91} 120 
55 | 16 | HAm/H 175.8) 143.9} 64.2] 91.2] 79.7| 45.33 191 | 151 | 79.06} 125 
51 | 16 HWw/H ... | 168.3} 138.3] 61.8} 90.2) 76.5| 45.45 186 | 154 | 82.80) 115 
460 | 16 | wHAm/a | 105 | 159.8| 130.5) 55.2| 81.5] 75.3} 47.12 177.) 14) Ve78-.66 ea 
50 | 17 | u/2us ... | 179.5| 145.0} 63.0| 89.0] 82.0] 45.68 184 | 159 | 86.41} 115 
164 | 13 u/HP 76 | 143 | 114.5) 49.3) 73.3| 65.2) 45.59 181 | 147 | 81.22| 106 
475 | 17 H/HP 125 | 169.6] 138.8| 59.8| 85.5] 79.0| 46.58 183 | 143 | 78.14 
Immature Females 
08 “i ee ... | 148.5] 120.8) 56.5} 80.0) 64.3) 43.30 173 | 140 | 80.92; 109 
89 | 17 HwW/H 161 | 160.1| 130.2] 61.3) 87.8) 68.9} 43.03 196 | 154 | 78.57] 115 
204 | 16) n/2Hw 154.5 | 122.5| 55.3) '79.5| 67.2| 43.49 182 | 151 | 82.97| 123 
215 | 16 H/HG 159.5} 130.9} 59.8) 82.5) '71.1| 44.57 177 | 149 | 84.18; 114 
953% 17 HW/# 158.3| 129.6| 55.2) 80.5) 74.4!) 46.99 175 | 152 | 86.86| 114 
Q54 | 14 H/HW ... | 149.8] 121.2} 53.3| 81.0| 67.9| 45.33 171 | 148 | 86.55 | 110 
437 | 15 H/HFr 80 | 155.5| 128.2) 57.5) 80.5) 70.7 | 45.47 161 | 142 | 88.20 
457 | 16 | HAm/H 95 | 155.2) 127.8) 57.3) 81.1) 70.5 | 45.42 176 | 140 | 79.55 
458 | 16 H/HW ... | 155.3] 126.2| 56.5| 80.3) 69.7| 44.88 180 | 142 | 78.89 
432 | 17 H/HP 131 | 148.5) 119.6) 52.2) 80.2) 67.4) 45.38 167 | 141 | 84.43 
476 | 17 H/HP 121 | 159.5| 130.3| 60.0) 85.9| 70.3) 44.07 171 1-138°) S20 teaes 
102 8 | n/2HW 127.2) 101.2| 47.7) 67.3} 53.5| 42.05 180 | 140 | 77.78} 102 
Backcross X WHITE 
Adult Males 
168 | 19 | HAm/E | 169 |. 175.0} 143.2] 66.4) 89.8) 76.8] 43.88 197 | 145 | 73.60| 122 
177 | 25 | 2wH/w |... | 171.4| 139.0) 63.6] 90.7) 75.4] 43.99 195 | 150 | 76.92) 118 
2747| 283 | HAm/Am | 125 | 166.5] 138.0| 60.0| 86.9} 78.0} 46.84 187 | 155 | 82.89| 113 
482 | 21 | wHAm/Am | 127 | 169.2] 135.4) 57.6) 89.9] 77.8 | 45.98 180 | 141 | 78.33 
Adult Females 
60 | 18 | HAm/No | 126 | 159.0; 130.0| 60.7| 83.2| 69.3| 43.58 176 | 151 | 85.80] 115 
121 | 19 | 2HAm/H| ... | 167.4| 189.5} 66.4) 88.0] 73.1] 43.66 184 | 146 | 79.35) 115 
137 3| 95 HE/Ir 124 | 161.2) 132.2) 63.6) 88.2) 68.6| 42.55 177 | 144 | 81.36} 109 
1388} 24 137 | 170.7| 143.0) 66.9| 93.4) '76.1| 44.58 187 | 148 | 79.14] 112 
6 Ehu. 7 Husband of No. 275. 8 Sisters. 







































































































































































APPENDIX 205 
TABLE IV (continued) 
Immature Males 
Facial Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
tH (=| =I 

Rie ars 2 "ao fi a 
See) setiay | See) ee) .5| oe lay | asl os oe : s 
Hea) aos] So | 83a| &s'| Bs | 25 | go | AS ‘as ‘Be 2g 2 
Sao Ae! eas | Azam) eo | ze | Ae | Z| BO mo safe BO A 

147 | 135 | 91.84; 81/115 | 62] 40 | 64.52] 244+) Black Curly Br 45-34 

1457) 197 | 87.59) 76 | 112 69 $5 | 50.72) 47 = Wavy Br 50-43 

doc) L124) 82.85". 70 | 113 51 37 | 72.55) 24 Br+2 ! Hazel 38-35 

141-| 126 | 89.36; '72 | 122 51 44 | 86.27} 39 Black ee Br 61-53 

M4-) 191 |.84.03| 73 | 112 55 SiN GTST CAT ¥e % $ 48-44 

122) 116 |} 95.08; 64]... AT 5 T6.00 gn. Br+1 o Br-1 pea: 

Poe Ly | S417) “70 | 112 60 43 | 71.67| 39 Black = Br+1 50-38 

130 | 114 | 87.69| 66 | 108 4S 36 | '75.00 Black Straight Br—-1 16-21 

126 | 116 | 92.06| 67 A6 42 | 91.30 Wavy Br+1 

Immature Females 

128 | 114 | 89.06; '70 | 105 51 34 | 66.67| 23—| Br+l1 Wavy Br 23-19 

143 | 116 | 81.12 68 | 116 50 39 | 78.00 | 23 Black Wavy Br+1 29-29 

145°) 118 | 79.31 66 | 1382 A 38 | 80.85 | 24 * : Br 26-25 

138 | 12% | 88.41 71 | 120 49 41 | 83.67 | 24 Br+1 - Br—-1 27-22 

foe lip 76.16 | 67 | 181 51 39 | 76.47 | 24 Bleached $ Br 32-30 

150 | 112 | 74.67 65 | 118 48 37 | 77.08 | 24 Black i Br 25-23 

121 | 113 | 93.89 63 46 36 | 78.26 Br+1 “ Br—2 

125 | 108 | 86.40; 60 42 37 | $38.10 Black Straight Br 

126 | 104 | 82.54 61 AS 37 | 82.22 Reddish Br+1 

125 | 109 | 87.20} 60 42 41 | 97.62 Br+1 ia ant 

Wee tis |) 93.59) 60 |)... 47 BU Ateo Peron se yar Wavy Br+1 eras 

128 | 102 | 79.69; 65 | 102 48 82 | 66.67 | 47 Br+1 Wavy Br+1 9-10 

Bacxcross X WHITE 
Adult Males 

144 | 126 | 87.50} 69 | 123 52 44 | 84.62} — Black Wavy Br+1 55-49 

132 | 114 | 86.36; 59 | 118 4S 40 | 83.83} — |Lt Yellow] Wavy Lt Blue | 47-42 

143 | 117 | 81.82} 71 | 117 59 35 | 59.32) 23 Br+1 Wavy Blue 49-44, 

127 | 109 | 85.83} 63 46 35 | 76.09| — Br+1 Straight Br+1 56 

Adult Females 

137 | 115 | 83.94} 75 | 107 | 55 30 | 54.55] 23—| Br+1 Wavy Blue 292-99 

132 | 129 | 97.73) '76 | 110 58-| 34 | 58.62} 23—| Br+1 Wavy Hazel 26-33 

135 | 117 | 86.67} 70 | 106 58 $0 | 51.72) 23— Br Straight ere 25-22 

132 | 115 | 97.12; 70; 118 56 34 | 60.71} 23 Br+1 . Br+1 38-37 










































































































































































206 APPENDIX 
TABLE IV (continued). 
Adult Females 
Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 
E | || Pelee |g | 8 | gt | ae] ee] Sls. [pee | | = [ay [eee 
So) & ‘oe 3 | 88 |: ca |B | Be ohs Joes f | es lee 
az | < = a Me | OO] oe | dy ped Sms) 4 qa | ogsriszaa 
430 | 18 | 2HAm/sc | 110 | 160.4; 131.4] 59.8) 80.3] 71.6} 44.63} 50.06) 171 | 130 | 76.02 
451 | 20 HE/No 135 | 169.8) 139.0} 64.0) 90.5) 75.0} 44.16} 53.30 178 139 | 78.09 
445 | 43 HE/P 151 | 169.0} 140.3] 67.3) 90.6) 73.0! 43.19} 53.61| 176 | 150 | 85.23 
Immature Males 

36 | 15 |2 AmH/Am 162.0} 129.0} 58.1| 89.0} 70.9| 43.75 | 54.94! 200 | 149 | 74.50} 122 
49 | 18 3 nH /E Uwe 168.0} 138.0) 62.0| 88.0} 76.0| 45.23} 52.38} 188 | 149 | 79.26/] 113 
385 | 16 | 2HG/am | 145 | 165.5) 134.7) 59.5| 85.7) '75.2| 45.43| 51.78| 183 | 138 | 74.51 
454 | 18 3 wH/B 173 | 178.4) 146.8} 63.6| 89.3) 83.2| 46.63} 50.06} 192 | 138 | 71.88 
468 | 16 3 amH/Am 136 | 174.5) 143.0) 64.7] 91.3) 78.3} 44.87] 52.32] 181 | 140 | 77.35 
480 | 18 Hw/Ww 136 | 175.4) 140.8) 56.6} 90.4) 84.2} 48.00} 51.54) 179 | 140 | 78.21 
462 | 16 | HAm/P 113 | 161.2) 132.3] 58.2| 80.2| 74.1] 45.97] 49.75] 174 | 141 | 81.03 

Immature Females 
219 | 17 wH/w 163.6, 132.6} 59.0) 2... 173.6) 44.98) 182 | 147 | 80.77 | 116 
223 | 16 HW/W an 153.2| 123.2) 55.0) '79.9| 68.2] 44.51] 52.15} 181 | 144 | 79.56) 108 
426 | 17 | HAm/Am | 110 | 171.2} 143.3) 66.8) 86.4) '76.5| 44.68] 50.47| 176 | 139 | 78.98] ... 
230 | 17 Hw/P 161.5) 131.2) 59.1] 84.7) 72.1] 44.64) 52.45} 182 | 150 | 82.42) 110 
Sie lanlies HwW/sp 158.0| 131.2| 58.6| 84.9| 72.6} 45.94] 53.73) 185 | 1389 | '75.14] 114 
OtnerR HawatAn-WuitE MIxtTuREs 
Males 

25 | 16 | 1+H?/w 160.3} 129.5) 52.5| 80.3) 77.0| 48.03} 50.09; 179 | 143 | 79.89/ 115 

$3) 15 2Hw/2wH 163.8} 134.8} 59.3} 84.3) 75.5] 46.09] 51.47] 180 | 151 | 83.89) 125 

39 | 16 | 2wuH?/sz 172.8| 141.5| 64.5} 90.2) 77.0) 44.55] 52.20) 187 | 154 | 82.35| 120 

43 | 17 w?/H 169.0| 139.0) 62.0} 85.0) 77.0} 45.56) 50.29) 198 | 161 | 81.31] 127 
124 | 16 |wspE?/wH| ... 167.5| 140.0} 60.4) 85.9| 79.6| 4'7.52) 51.28) 184 | 149 | 80.98} 117 
167 | 26 |\2wH/2wa! 192 | 176.1} 145.4) 67.9| 87.5| 77.5| 44.01] 49.69} 195 | 161 | 82.56} 119 
421 | 55 wH/? 187 | 180.4) 152.2) 67.2} 92.5) 85.0} 47.12] 51.27| 189 | 154 | 81.48 

Females 

9¢ | 16 | Hw/Hw 165.8} 135.5| 59.7| 86.9) '75.8| 45.71| 52.41| 174 | 145 | 83.33) 113 
103 | 13 H/w? w.. 149.3; 120.5) 55.5) 80.5] 65.0} 43.53] 53.91] 184 | 144 | 78.26} 11¢ 
119 | 26 EH/AmH 162 | 162.4} 133.6| 62.0; 86.6) 71.6] 44.09} 53.33) 186 | 155 | 83.33] 118 
158 | 17 AmH/AmH 116 | 150.2) 121.2) 54.4! 79.8| 66.8| 44.47) 53.13) 179 | 140 | 78.21) 109 
290 | 26 | uw/uw | 165 | 168.7) 139.1} 66.0| 89.2) 73.1] 43.33| 52.87| 170 | 143 | 84.12 

447 | 16 H/¢Ir 140 | 154.6) 128.6) 60.6) 84.6! 68.0] 43.98} 54.72] 168 | 142 | 84.52 

449 | 16 HG/HP 110 | 161.9} 1381.3) 58.5| 84.1) 72.8] 44.96} 51.95) 161 | 141 | 87.58 

450 Ga 9 Ba 155.7; 126.3) 56.4) 81.1} 69.9} 44.89] 52.09| 173 | 144 | 83.24 

497 | 17 HW/HW 150 | 157.1] 127.6| 59.9| 85.9| 67.7| 43.09| 54.68| 178 | 187 | 76.9% 






























































9 Father 1/2 Hawaiian, 1/4 English, 1/4 Portuguese; Mother 1/2 Porto Rican, 1/2 Spanish. 













































































































































































APPENDIX 207 
TABLE IV (continued). 
Adult Females 
Facial Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
i=) (=| i 
ae a. | ae e: 4 s 
Soe) See)ay | 285/22) 28) ek lau las] us » f 5 e 
Sas] aos) so | eeo| ws o'5 62 a5 | g's ics) “a ae 5 
Bee 42ed) ees | za) mo | Ze | aM | Sees] HO aa) anf BO A 
117 | 107 | 91.45; 55 41 By 4h hee aoe Ah Br—1 
124 | 111 | 89.52} 59 44 | 35 | 79.55 Br Straight Br 
129 | 113 | 87.60 65 53 37 | 69.81 Black Wavy Br 
Immature Males 
139 | 129 | 92.81 77 =| 114 57 35 | 61.46) 24 Br Straight Br-1 28-34 
136 | 107 | 78.68 65 | 1138 50 33 | 66.00) 23 Br Me Br 41-35 
121 | 119 | 98.35 67 45 Bl Mee sO Sc oe Br Wavy Blue 51 
125 | 115 | 92.00| 64 50 | 38 | 76.00} 2 Br-1 Curly Blue— 
123 | 110 | 89.43 62 46 32 | 69.57 Br a Br one 
129 | 123 | 95.35 71 56 36 | 64.29 Br Straight Br 41 
125 | 112 | 89.60 63 45 g0- |) F778 Br—1 Br 
Immature Females 
135 | 113 | 83.70 66 | 127 47 a ieeleetous Light Br Wavy Br—1 30-28 
136 | 112 | 82.35 63 | 124 4S 35 | 72.92 . Br—1 Blue 11-11 
123 | 107 | 86.90 OL dee 43 OA 7 OlOFa ae ae ieee oe bgtoen 
136 | 120 | 88.24 67 | 118 48 32 | 66.67 | 23 Black Wavy Br 31-30 
133 | 111 | 83.46 70 | 124 51 35 | 68.63 | 24 - Straight Br 19-16 
OrseR Hawaran-Warte Mixtures 
Males 
137 | 114 | 83.21 70 | 108 54 39 | 72.221 33 Br+1 Wavy Br 39-36 
145 | 123 | 84.83 7a | 121 52 42 | 80.77 | 47 Black - : 32-31 
143 | 123 | 86.01; 75 | 118 60 39 | 52.20} 24 Br—1 Straight Hazel 50-42 
155 | 135 | 87.10 85 | 124 64 Al | 64.06) 40— Br Wavy Br 60 
140 | 129 | 92.14 73 | 110 53 85 | 66.04) 4'7 Br+2 Curly Br 34-28 
154 | 117 | 75.97| '70 | 134 52 39 | 75.10 Br Wavy Hazel 41-39 
142 | 137 | 96.48 74 55 44 | 80.90 Black = Br 
Females 
133 | 117 | 89.97 68 | 112 51 40 | 78.43 | 24 Br+1 Wavy Br 38-29 
132 | 113 | 85.61 67 | 110 538 36 | 67.92 | 47 Black Me Br 20-18 
138 | 126 | 86.96 73 | 119 50 35 | 70.00} 24— Br+2 Straight Br 24-20 
122 | 112 | 91.80 62 | 107 43 33 | 76.74) 24— Black Curly Br 19-18 
130 | 111 | 85.38 65 49 39 | 79.59 | 13 Br+1 : Wavy Br Q7 
126 | 104 | 82.54 57 40 33 | 82.50 Black e Br 
121 | 121 |100.00| 65 43 34 | 79.07 Br+1 es Br+1 
118 | 112 | 94.92} 59 46 | 34 | 73.91 Br+1 3 Br 
120 | 111 | 92.50| 58 41 32 | 78.05 Br Curly Blue 




























































































208 APPENDIX 
TABLE V. HAWAIIAN WHITE CHINESE 
Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 
eee we x ea ed Hag 
z elie 12 | 8 | ga |eelee| 2 ly_8 [eee | S| ogee 
Bs] S| ¥ Sa] B | 8 | es | se | bs sks ices | § | & | Se leee 
ne | <4] vi SLl tt | RO |] ma | dA jS<Qs\Emas 4 ma | OFS 1K 
189 |2)/o| un/e |132 173.8) 140.4] 62.4] 83.2) 78.0| 44.76] 47.87] 197 | 155 | 78.68] 114 
27 |16| | ue/N 164.7} 133.0| 60.5| 86.1] 72.5| 44.02] 52.28] 173 | 146 | $4.39) 113 
35 |16| | HN/HC 155.7, 124.5| 51.5} 82.2) 73.0} 46.89} 51.52] 174 | 155 | 89.08} 117 
38 | 14] ot cH/N 158.0) 126.5| 56.5| 84.9) 70.0) 44.30} 53.73} 193 | 150 | 77.72| 113 
41 |}15| | cH/a_ |...| 160.0) 130.0|°60.0| 84.0! 70.0| 43.75| 52.50] 187 | 153 | 81.82) 110 
463 |14/ | uN/c_ {102 153.2} 122.8] 53.5] 79.2| 69.3] 45.23] 51.70] 172 | 139 | 80.81 
473 |16| oc) wa/Nc {115| 157.9) 127.1| 55.4) 80.6! 71.7] 45.41] 51.04] 159 | 187 | 86.16 
483 |17| | P/ac 120 161.4, 131.3| 57.5| 85.6) 73.8| 45.44] 52.71] 174 | 140 | 80.46) ... 
159 |18) 9| cH/naw {120 156.5 | 129.8| 58.4) $2.5] 71.4] 45.62] 52.71) 166 | 155 | 93.87) 113 
293 |21|91| c/oun {115 159.0| 127.6| 58.8| 86.1] 68.8| 43.27] 54.15] 170 | 134 | 78.82 
306 |20|9| un/ac |145) 162.9} 132.4) 61.0) 87.5| 71.4] 43.56| 53.39] 172 | 147 | 85.47 
334 | 27| 9 NH/c ..| 164.0) 133.6) 61.1] 86.4) 72.5) 44.21| 52.68} 166 | 136 | 81.93] ... 
90 | 16| 9 Hc/N |143] 154.7} 125.5] 58.5| 83.5] 67.0| 43.31] 53.87] 180 | 156 | 86.66] 123 
182 | 14) 9 HC/N 158.4| 128.1] 54.7} 79.9) 73.4| 46.34) 50.44] 178 | 145 | 81.46} 111 
111 | 11] 9 |a(c?)/nw|...| 144.2) 116.5| 51.6) 73.7) 64.9) 45.01! 51.11] 169 | 145 | 85.S0 107 
217 |16|9 | uN/cH 163.6) 130.3) 55.5) 87.7| 74.8) 45.72) 53.61] 176 | 146 | 82.95| 118 
234 116) 9 | cH/NH 153.5} 124.3) 56.4} 80.2) 67.9) 44.30) 52.25) 164 | 146 | 89.02) 111 
248 |17| 9 | cH/sp 158.0} 129.2| 59.3) 85.7) 69.9| 44.30] 54.241 181 | 150 | 82.87) 108 
978 | 15) 9 uc/N 159.0] 127.4| 57.8| 86.0] 69.6| 43.77] 54.09] 186 | 144 | 77.42| 116 
434 |17| 9 | spo/ue |...| 150.7] 123.4] 57.6) 75.0| 65.8) 41.91| 49.77] 161 | 141 | 87.58 
492 |17| 9 | uc/Hn /125| 158.0} 129.3} 5€.9| 80.9; 72.6| 45.66| 50.88] 174 | 133 | 76.44 
498 |17) 9 | uspc/ue |105| 155.6} 129.3| 60.2) 79.1) 69.1] 44.41] 50.83] 163 | 1388 | 84.66 
499 | 17) 9 Hc/P |...| 152.0) 124.9| 56.7] 79.5] 68.2| 44.87] 52.30] 162 | 141 | 87.04 
501 | 26| %| Nu/ucn |160] 177.1) 147.0) 65.4| 88.5; 81.6| 46.07| 49.97] 178 | 137 | 76.97 
5031| 9| @| uc/HNCe 123.6} 96.8) 39.7) 64.5) 57.1} 46.20| 52.18) 162 | 132 | 81.48 
5041) 610 . 107.9| 82.5! 34.9! 55.5! 47.6| 44.11 | 51.441 155 | 127 | 81.93 
5051) 5] 9 " 106.5 53.5 50.23| 146 | 127 | 56.99 





























1 Children of o& 501 and 9 502 (Fi Hawaiian X Chinese). 











—— 


4 
a 
{ 
1 
; 
‘ 
1 






























































APPENDIX 209 
TABLE V. HAWAIIAN WHITE CHINESE 
Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive 
1 g es s | ns 
BEAlzet| aae|zdmi zr |azdgi|azse| #5 | 2d Hic, ad & | ee 
142 | 140 | 98.59} 81 58 40 | 68.97 — Black | Straight Br—2 57-47; — 
1297) 126.| 97.67) 71 51 41 | 80.39 a3 Br+2 £ Br 45-49) — 
142 | 127 | 89.44) 77 58 41 | 70.69} 40— Black Wavy Br+1 42-49, — 
128 | 113 | 88.28} 66 47 36 | 76.58) 24— : Straight Hazel 27-30; — 
126 | 110 | 87.30| 64 52 39 | 75.00| 23 sy Wavy Br si-ot 
129 | 104 | 80.62| 62 41 36 | 87.81 — bs Straight Br+1 = + 
122 | 108 | 88.52} 60 43 40 | 95.24 — 7 be ‘ 47 — + 
126 | 116 | 92.06; 66 AS Ua ery vir gama a Br+1 Wavy Br 51— sk 
139 | 116 | 83.45} 63 46 38 | 82.61) 23— Br #3 Br-1 25-94) = 
129 | 110 | 85.27) 65 AT 3- 72.34 — Br+1 | Straight Br 24—| O 
169 | 112 |102.75 67 49 42 | 85.71| 12 Black Wavy " 30—| 0O 
130 | 105 | 80.77| 59 47 36 | 76.59| 15 he Straight Br+1 33—| 0 
144 | 125 | 86.81 74 5A 40 | 74.07) 23 * Wavy Br+1 Q4-94| 
139 | 123 | 88.49; 76} 55 | 35 | 63.63) Blonde| Br+1 | Straight | Hazel | 21-17) — 
a25) 116 | 92.80| “71 49 33 | 67.35 | AT— Br+1 Wavy Br+1 16-17; + 
135 | 118 | 87.41 67 51 39 | 76.47| 24 Black | Straight Br 25-22, — 
138 | 113 | 81.88] 65 49 38 | 77.55| light Br+1 § Br—-1 27-26) — 
140 | 122 | 87.14} 74 52 op. 1,07 | 23 Black Wavy es 33-34, — 
136 | 115 | 84.56 68 50 40 | 80.00) 23 : Curly Br 31-34, = 
124 99 | 79.84| 58 39 39 |100.90 — . Straight Br+1 == 0 
126 | 111 | 88.09| 66 | 49 | 34] 69.39} — Br+1| Wavy Br — + 
131 | 112 | 85.50| 65 AZ 33 | 70.74 _ Black * z = ee 
124 | 105 | 84.68} 58 40 of | 92.50 = . *e Br+1 = 0 
129 | 115 | 89.15 67 4A 40 | 90.91 = Black Curly Br-1 — 0 
=e 95 — oT 38 33 | 86.84 “ Wavy Br+1 — 0 
= 84 — 45 39 31 | 79.49 Br+2 : Br — 0 
= 81 a 45 ol 32: 1103.23 : i Br — 0 






































BPwnNe 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 





(Titles are referred to by number only in the text) 


. McCaughey, V., 1919. 


Thid. 


. Hoffman, F. L., 1923. 
. Hrdlicka, Ales, 1920. 


. Davenport, C. B., 1904. 
. Yule, G. U., 1919: 

. Pearson, K., 1897. 

. Pearson, K., 1903. 

, Craig, Jo1., 1911. 

. Dunn, L.C.,.1923. 


. Sullivan, L. R., 1921. 


lla. Sullivan, L. R., 1923. 


12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 


18. 
19, 


Sullivan, L. R., 1920. 
Martin, R., 1914. 
Davenport, C. B., 1917. 
Davenport, C. B., 1923. 
von Luschan, F., 1907. 
Allen, H., 1898. 


Flower, W. H., 1878. 
Otis, G. A., 1876. 


Jour. Hered. 10: 90-95. 

Scientific Monthly 5: 166-174. 

Eugenics in Race and State, pp. 90-108. 

Anthropometry. Wistar Institute of Anatomy 
and Biology, Philadelphia. Pp. 163. 

(The International Agreement adopted at Mo- 
naco (1906) and supplemented by the Geneva 
Agreement (1912) is given in pp. 10-31.) 

Statistical Methods. John Wiley & Sons, New 
York.) - 225 np. 

Introduction to the Theory of Statistics, 5th ed. 
C. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London. 

Proc. Roy. Soc. 60: 489-498. 

Biometrika 2: 338. 

Biometrika 8: 66-78. 

Eugenics in Race and State, pp. 109-124, Wil- 
liams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore. 

Memoirs of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Vol. 

8, No. 2. Published by the Museum, Honolulu. 

Memoirs of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Vol. 
9, No. 2. 

Hawaii. 

Anthropological Papers of the Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., N. Y., Vol. 28, Part 3. 

Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. Gustav Fischer, 
Jena. 

Genetics 2: 313-389. 

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sciences 9: 226-230. 

Veroff. aus. d. Koénigl. Museum fiir Vélker- 
kunde Bd XII, No. 2. 

Trans. Wagner Free Inst. of Science. Phil. V, 
Ds 

Roy. Inst. Great Britain. 

Check list of preparations and objects in the 
section of human anatomy of the U. 8. Army 
Medical Museum, etc. Washington, pp. 
113-121. 


20. 
21. 


22. 
23. 
24. 
20. 


26. 


27. 


28. 


Deniker, J : 1900. 
Hagen, B., 1889. 


Castle, W. E., 1922. 
Boas, F., 1899. 
Boas, F., 1907. 

Bean, R. B. 
Davenport, C. B., and 
Love, A. G., 1921. 

Goring, C., 1913. 


Shapiro, H. L. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 211 


The Races of Man. 

Anthropologische Studien aus dem Insulinde. 

Natur. Verh. der Koninkl. Akad. Deel. 28. 

Carnegie Inst. Publ. 320. 

The Cephalic Index. Amer. Anth. Vol. 1, p. 448. 

Heredity in Anthropometric Traits. Amer. Anth. 
Vol. 9, p. 457. 

Heredity of Hair Form among Filipinos. Amer. 
Nat. Vol. 45, p. 524. 

Army Anthropology. Medical Dept., U. S. 
Army in World War, Vol. 15. Statistics, Part 
I, Gov’t Printing Office, 635 pp. Washington, 
De 

The English Convict. <A Statistical Study. 
London. 

The Norfolk Islanders. MS. 





PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI.—No. 4 


_ AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 
FROM MONTARDIT (ARIEGE) 
 -FRANCE 


BY 


RUTH OTIS SAWTELL 


SEVEN PLATES AND TWO ILLUSTRATIONS 
IN THE TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1931 





PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vout. XI.—No. 4 


AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 
FROM MONTARDIT (ARIEGE) 
FRANCE 


BY 


RUTH OTIS SAWTELL 


SEVEN PLATES AND TWO ILLUSTRATIONS 
IN THE TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1931 


COPYRIGHT, 1931 
BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN AR 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVE 


ta 





CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION ; 
Deere Sk Tee he EAP ere 


DESCRIPTION OF SKELETAL REMAINS 
Pieterorirae atalogue’. 6. + ek ke ee we 


Age and Sex of Azilian vests : 

Cranial Characters of Azilians of mfoaterdit 

Maxillaand Mandible. ........ 
CISION sw ek MESS RAN, stile 

_ Extremities 

Stature Le sR TUNIS ie, so Sai Im UN SL i 
Vertebrae ... CE Ree eg tie ee eo Pe 
Shoulder-girdle a Paws Seen re a as 
Pee OOLDONES: <6. uc ee ee 
UPTV OVMEPEERR SS). oe ek ee rere: 
Morphological BNting ee aks, (eC oor Ngee 


COMPARATIVE DaTA 
De ree OULING. ke we 
Mesolithic . 


SUMMARY ..... 
DBUSAOGRAPHY.. . . .... 
TABLES 

1. Vertebrae ... Brae oe eh ope ato 
Right patella, fies BNR a tah a ene a nie ie li Bee OY tut 
eoYets sy. Sean ee aE RTE oN et Keres 
Mean ratings of GPa aol Ag ah eight anes ete 
Morphological rating of Sie ate I aeentnn ey 
- Montardit measurements compared with Mesolithic and Pa- 


a eet ae et cee 


laeolithic male crania 


Sa ape ge Ltr 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES 
Cranium of Montardit I, norma frontalis and norma occipitalis. . 221 
Cranium of Montardit I, norma verticalis and norma lateralis. . . 223 
Manxilla of MontarditlD . 2)... .). . 9) rn 225 
Mandible of Mgntardit I . .... 3 9 2. 33) 227 
Right femur and right tibia of Montardit I, lateral and anterior 
VIEWS 2.86 ee SOR ee 229 
Right and left ulnae of Montardit I, anterior and lateral views . 231 
Fourth lumbar vertebra of Montardit I . . .) 3a 233 
FIGURES 
Male cranium from Mugem (after Carthailac) ........ 246 


. Superimposition of sagittal arcs of Montardit I and Kaufertsberg 


skulls . 0. 606. we Ne Reg ee 248 


INTRODUCTION 


THE SITE 


THE rock shelters of Montardit are surrounded by famous caves 
of the French Pyrenees. The Mas d’Azil, Tuc d’Audoubert, Trois 
Fréres, and Enléne lie within a few miles, and on all sides the lime- 
stone of the Plantaurel is pierced by hundreds of caves, many of 
which have yielded traces of industry from which the palaeolithic 
past has been reconstructed. During excavations of the largest of 
the Montardit shelters, a small cave well known in the local patois 
as the Tuto Biouleto (Trou Violet), the Violet Hole, certain human 
skeletal remains were discovered associated with fauna and im- 
plements of stone and bone which dated them as definitely Azilian. 

The work of the first field season, 1924, undertaken by Paul and 
Ida Treat Vaillant-Couturier and the present writer, then Rad- 
cliffe traveling fellow in science, was made possible by the interest 
and enthusiasm of the late Mrs. William G. Farlow of Cambridge. 
The excavations of 1925 and 1926 were carried on by Monsieur 
and Madame Vaillant-Couturier under the patronage of the Insti- 
tut de Paléontologie Humaine de Paris. The human skeletons are 
now in the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris, together with 
the greater part of the animal bones and artifacts; a small collec- 
tion representing the Azilian industry and fauna was presented to 
the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. 

Through the great courtesy of Professor Boule and Professor 
Verneau of the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris, the writer 
was able to study the Azilian skeletons in their laboratories, to- 
gether with other rare prehistoric remains, notably the three Cro- 
Magnon crania. Monsieur Paul Clavelin of the Laboratoire d’An- 
thropologie was unfailing in help and kindness. For advice in the 
preparation of this monograph, gratitude is expressed to Professor 
Earnest A. Hooton of Harvard University. 


STRATIFICATION 


Five distinct strata were disclosed in the excavation of the Trou 
Violet. These strata, their peculiar fauna and industry, have been 


218 INTRODUCTION 


thoroughly described by the Vaillant-Couturiers, and it is from 
their study that these statements are summarized.! From bottom 
to top the strata ran: 


A. Clay, friable and sterile, resting on the rock floor of the cave. 
B. Yellow clay containing Magdalenian hearths and reindeer 
bones. 


C. Clay, muddy, containing pieces of limestone, cobblestones, 
bones of rodents and birds, and covered in certain spots by 
a deposit of stalagmite. 


D. Black earth, striped with red, containing many Azilian 
hearths, fauna characteristic of that period, and an abun- 
dance of Helix. 


KE. Disturbed earth, Neolithic and Gallo-Roman remains. 


Stratum D, the Azilian layer, began at 1.40 m. below the cave 
surface of 1924. Sixty centimeters down in this layer — two meters 
from the top — was found the first Azilian burial. This was on 
August 28, 1924. Ten days later, at an additional depth of 50 em., 
the second grave came to light. The trench at the back of the cave 
had reached the level of an archway, the entrance of which was 
closed by great blocks of limestone. Removal of these blocks dis- 
closed a small chamber 1.50 m. in length. The first human skele- 
ton (Montardit I) lay with the skull vault against the springstone 
of this arch. It had been placed on the right side, completely ex- 
tended, the head higher than the feet, the body inclined downward 
and inward toward the back of the small chamber. Across the 
legs a large flat stone had been set, and the grave was roughly 
outlined by eighteen cobblestones, one with traces of red. Numer- 
ous other stones showing use as hammers, anvils, etc., and marked 
with red, or blackened from fire, were found within this circle. A 
large flint chip crudely worked was the only implement. The 
remains of the second human skeleton (Montardit II) were also 
buried within a second archway, shallower than the first, also closed 
by a pile of limestone blocks. Although few bones were found, in 
contrast to the almost complete preservation of Montardit I, the 
number of stones outlining the grave and the objects within greatly 


1 L’ Anthropologie, vol. xxxvuI (1928), pp. 217-243. Several photographs accompanying 
this article appeared in the study above; others are used through the courtesy of D. Appleton 
and Company. 


INTRODUCTION 219 


exceeded those of the first burial. The type of objects was the 
same, even to the great crude rdcloir. Beside the skull was found 
a small scraper (grattoir sur bout de lame). 

Both hearths on which the burials were made contained the 
same fauna, characteristically Azilian: Sus scrofa, Cervus elaphus, 
Capreolus, Bos sp., Canis lapus, Felis sylvestris, Mustela foina, 
Meles taxus, Mustela martes, rodents and birds. Above and below 
the two graves continued hearths filled with remains of the same 
animals and with typical Azilian implements of stone and bone. 
There is no question, then, of burial at a later date. 


220 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


DESCRIPTION OF SKELETAL REMAINS 


OSTEOLOGICAL CATALOGUE 


Skeletal remains of four individuals have been found in the 
Trou Violet; two represented by one bone each, and the two Azil- 
ian burials excavated in 1924. 

Montardit A. Portion of the left side of the pelvis of a young 
individual. Picked up on the surface by the Abbé Cistac and 
M. Vaillant-Couturier in 1905. 

Montardit B. Right humerus of a small, non-muscular subject, 
probably female. This was found in July, 1924, in the disturbed 
stratum (E) and is therefore of uncertain period. The distal ex- 
tremity and about one-half of the shaft were present. The shaft, 
rounded and smooth, with middle diameters of 19 mm. and 16 mm., 
was in marked contrast to the rugged, relatively massive bone 
of the first Azilian burial. The middle shaft index (84.2) indicates 
less flattening than in any of the group means cited by Martin, 
the nearest being 83, the mean for the right humerus of white 
American females. 

Montardit I. Skeleton of an old male, the first of the two 
Azilian burials. The condition of the cranium and long bones was 
sufficiently good to warrant a fairly complete series of measure- 
ments and detailed morphological observations. The following 
bones were present: 

Cranium. Calvaria complete except for anterior half of both 
temporals and portion of right parietal and frontal. Base and most 
of face lacking (Plates 1 and 2). Maxilla present (Plate 3). Man- 
dible complete except for right ascending ramus (Plate 4). 

Clavicles. Left, complete. Right, lateral portion only. 

Scapulae. Right and left, glenoid cavities, coracoid and acro- 
mion processes, part of axillary borders. 

Sternum. Gladiolus, right side complete. 

Ribs. Fragments of 18. Slender. 

Pelvis. Portion of right and left ilia with acetabula. Left crest. 
Sacrum, fragment of first segment. 

Vertebrae. Cervical 3; dorsal 8; lumbar 4 (Plate 7); sacral 1; 
coccygeal 0; total 16. Miscellaneous fragments. 


FROM MONTARDIT 221 


Femora. Right, complete except for small portion of internal 
surface of interior condyle (Plate 5). Left, portions of both con- 
dyles, neck, and head. 

Tibiae. Right, complete. Shaft below head shows some crush- 
ing inward (Plate 5). Left, lower half of shaft and part of head. 

Fibulae. Left, complete. Right, distal extremity. 

Humerv. Right, part of head missing. Left, lower half of shaft 
and most of head. 

Radw. Right, shaft from below bicipital tuberosity to beginning 
of extremity. Left, head and shaft to beginning of extremity. 

Ulnae. Right, styloid process and articulation for radius miss- 
ing. Left, complete (Plate 6). 

Foot and Hand. Os calcis, right and left almost complete. First 
left metatarsal; left cuboid, fragment; 3rd metacarpal, right and 
left; 4th left metacarpal; fragments of 1 metacarpal and 1 meta- 
tarsal. 

Montardit II. The Second Azilian Burial. Remains of an indi- 
vidual, probably male, much younger than Montardit I. 

Calva. Major portion of parietals; part of occipital and of right 
frontal. Temporal border of left parietal and piece of right frontal 
found apart from calva, distinctly warped and possibly gnawed. 

Clavicle. Right, almost complete. 

Scapula. Right, fragment inferior angle, junction of vertebral 
and axillary borders. 

Patella. Right, complete. 

Ribs. Fragments of three. 

Footbones. Cuboid, right; scaphoid, left; internal cuneiform, 
right; metatarsals, first right, fourth right and left. 


AGE AND SEX OF AZILIAN SKELETONS 


Montardit I. The burial found in the first Azilian hearth, two 
meters from the level of 1924, was presumably that of an old man. 
Of the areas where age changes are most definitely indicated, the 
symphysis pubis was absent, but the excessive wear of the teeth 
(Plate 4), the condition of the palate, — constricted, senile, and 
diseased (Plate 3), — and the vertebrae with their depressed cen- 
tra and arthritic borders (Plate 7), all pointed to more than middle 
life. Moreover, the state of the cranial sutures agreed with this 
conclusion. Viewed from the inner surface, the coronal and tem- 


222 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


poro-lambdoid sutures were entirely closed, the sagittal was three- 
fourths obliterated, and of the lambdoid, only traces remained. 
On the outside, the coronal was visible only in the temporal region 
(Plate 2), the lambdoid almost obliterated (Plate 1), the sagittal 
present only at bregma and obelion, and the temporo-occipital open. 

Sex differentiation in the cranium was most marked in the 
heavy brow-ridges and rugged mastoids, both remarkable for so 
small a skull. The skull base and zygomata being absent and the 
palate senile, the only other evidence was furnished by the man- 
dible. The menton and the gonial angles were strongly marked; 
the other characters were definitely masculine. Of the other bones, 
the fragmentary pelvis offered little. The ischiatic notch was deep 
and of medium width; the spines were broken. On the right, the 
preauricular sulcus showed a sharp line; on the left, it was less 
clearly marked, but with no roughness. 

All the long bones were sturdy with heavy musculature, and the 
heads of femur and humerus were large both actually and relative 
to the shaft (Plate 5). 

The balance of evidence thus seems to justify the conclusion 
that the first Azilian skeleton was male and old. Of the second, 
while almost none of the decisive characters were present, on the 
basis of its greater thickness and similar size, and of the prominent 
occipital torus, seems also male. The suture closure — internal, 
all open; external, all open except the sagittal around obelion — 
indicates a young individual. 


CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF AZILIANS OF MONTARDIT 


As nearly as one can judge from its present state, the cranium of 
Montardit II in norma verticalis resembled a slightly broadened 
ellipse, with a parietal breadth approximating 136 mm. There is 
definite flattening at and just above lambda. These traits are 
equally characteristic of Montardit I, but the occipital torus, a 
ridge marked but not extremely rugged, is in contrast to the inion 
of Number I. Both skulls show suture patterns of medium com- 
plexity. The coronal suture of Montardit II is very simple, the 
others grading from medium to complex. Several small Wormian 
bones appear in the sagittal suture, and the left portion of the lamb- 
doid contains one large and one small. In both crania, there is one 
very large parietal foramen and several of minute size. 


FROM MONTARDIT 223 


The most outstanding characteristic of this fragmentary skull 
is the thickness of the frontal bone. At bregma, it measures 9 mm., 
and at 2.5 mm. lower, 10 mm. The mean thickness of the left 
parietal above the temporo-parietal suture is, however, only 3.6 
mm. The relation this bears to other prehistoric skulls will be 
discussed later. 

Of those personal experiences both post- and ante-mortem which 
individualize even so remote a specimen, this cranium had its 
share. Two healed depressed lesions mar the surface of the parie- 
tals, a small one on the right, and on the left, 38 mm. from obelion, 
a depression 12 x6 mm. in diameter. Whether from the early dis- 
turbance of the grave already mentioned or from the wear and 
tear of the following ages, numerous scratches cross both parietals, 
those on the portion of the frontal and parietal found outside the 
sepulture being deepest. At the point where the frontal ends, the 
roughness of the bone suggests gnawing, but is equally and more 
probably indicative of long contact with earth and stone. In view 
of the fact that clavicle, patella, and footbones were found in ap- 
proximately normal relationship to the calva, the suggestion offered 
by the Abbé Breuil that the scratches mean preparation and cere- 
monial burial of the Le Placard type does not seem probable. 

Montardit I. Calvarium— Measurements. On the calvarium of 
the first Azilian skeleton it was possible to take the following 
measurements. ; 

Glabello-occipital length 180 mm.; maximum transverse breadth 
136.5 mm.; auricular height 117 mm. These, with the length- 
breadth and length-auricular height indices of 75.83 and 65, show a 
small skull at the lowest limit of mesocephaly and well within the 
hypsicephalic division of Martin. The maximum circumference 
above the brow-ridges approximated 510 mm. The height of the 
rather low right orbit was about 30 mm., and the nasal breadth 
measured 24 mm. The cranial bones showed considerable thick- 
ness. On the left parietal just above the temporo-parietal suture, 
the mean was 5.3, about that obtained. by Boule on the Neanderthal 
man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, 2.6 mm. thicker than the Old Man 
of Cro-Magnon, and 1.7 mm. thicker than the same region of 
Montardit II. The frontal region at bregma, however, was 6 mm., 
the same as Cro-Magnon I, whereas the Neanderthal specimen 
measured 8 mm. and Montardit II, 9 mm. At 2.5 mm. below 


224 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


bregma, where Montardit II shows its greatest thickness of 10 mm., 
Montardit I remains 6 mm., while the Cro-Magnon frontal in- 
creases to 7 mm. It must be borne in mind, however, that Mon- 
tardit I is a much older individual than Montardit II. 

By the Lee-Pearson formula 10 bis, a cranial capacity of 1389 
was computed, an amount small but well within the range of all 
modern European groups listed by Martin. 

Measurements of the palate were unsatisfactory because of 
senility and state of preservation, but a tentative index of 110.35 
supports the observation of original narrowness. 

The degree of completeness of the mandible allowed these four 
measurements: height of symphysis, 31 mm.; minimum breadth 
of left ascending ramus, 32 mm.; height of ramus, 53 mm.; condylo- 
symphysial length, 100 mm. 

Discussion of these measurements will be found in relation to 
the morphological observations, and in comparison with other 
crania of the Stone Ages. 

Montardit I. Calvarium— Morphological Observations. The fron- 
tal region of the skull was of average height, the slope gradual 
and of medium steepness (Plate 2). The breadth was apparently 
medium (Plate 1). There was a slight median ridge. Brow-ridges 
heavy and protruding surmounted each orbit, but with no ex- 
tension above nasion of the torus type. Below these ridges, the 
glabella was prominent and protuberant, and the upper border of 
the orbit showed great thickness. 

Viewed in norma verticalis, the sagittal region formed a some- 
what widened ellipse of medium breadth. No elevation or post- 
coronoid depression broke the continuous curve to the region just 
above lambda, where the same flattening already mentioned in 
Montardit II occurs. The curve again continues throughout the 
perfectly convex, non-protuberant occipital region with its small, 
definitely marked inion. The temporal region was probably of 
medium development. Large supra-mastoid crests were present, 
more pronounced on the left than on the right, and the mastoids 
were big for so small a skull and quite rugged. 

Sutures were apparently of medium pattern, and almost entirely 
obliterated, as has been stated above. Several Wormian bones of 
small size were present in the right and left portions of the coronal 
suture; one large example appeared as lambda, and one large left, 


FROM MONTARDIT 225 


one medium right, and various ossicles in each side of the occipital 
suture. In the sagittal suture, a parietal foramen of considerable 
size with a smaller perforation at the left recalled a similar occur- 
rence in Montardit IT. 


MAXILLA AND MANDIBLE 


Although too great an area was lacking to permit the attachment 
of maxilla (Plate 3) to calvarium, the condition of both upper 
and lower jaws made possible a fairly complete study of the face 
of the Montardit Azilian. The orbits were rather low, rhomboid in 
shape, and of medium inclination. The nasal root was depressed to 
a moderate degree, the spine small, and the lower borders of the 
aperture not sharply defined. No trace of alveolar prognathism 
was discernible; facial prognathism could not be ascertained. The 
hard palate, now distorted by senility and with the alveolar borders 
eaten and absorbed by abscesses, doubtless had a narrow para- 
bolic form. The mandible (Plate 4) was of medium size, with a 
strong body and ascending rami moderately broad but very thin. 
The sigmoid notch was not deep. The inferior dental foramen was 
unusually large; the eversion of the gonial angles strongly marked; 
the chin was positive, a rough oval in form. On the inner surface 
two characters offered marked evolutionary conflict — the almost 
complete absence of the mylo-hyoid ridge, reminiscent of the 
anthropoid, associated with an ultra-human development of the 
genial tubercles. 


DENTITION 


When the jaws were disinterred, eight teeth were more or less 
present; none were found in the grave. While all of these teeth 
showed excessive wear, there were no signs of caries. The teeth 
present were the upper left canine and the mesial fang of the upper 
left first molar (Plate 3); in the mandible (Plate 4), root of the 
canine, first right premolar, all three right molars, left first premolar. 
Of the upper teeth missing, all four premolars were probably lost 
in life. Their sockets are pitted and eaten by abscesses and possible 
pyorrhoea, and traces of the same condition extend throughout 
the molar region. 

While the borders of the lower jaw show less evidence of inflam- 
matory processes than does the maxilla, the enlargement of the 


226 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


socket for the right second molar and its extension over the buccal 
surface probably denotes an abscessed condition. Both central 
incisors and possibly the left second incisor were lost in life and the 
processes were absorbed. The third molar is much less worn than 
any of the other teeth. The first and second molars are of equal 
size, again an anthropoid trait, but the canines are non-projecting 
and there is no other hint of characters less than typically human. 


EXTREMITIES 


The limb bones of the Montardit Azilian characterize him as a 
short, muscular man with no apelike and few primitive traits. 

The right femur (Plate 5) measures 407 mm. bicondylar and 
415 mm. maximum. At mid-shaft, the antero-posterior diameter 
is 27 mm., the transverse 23 mm.; the corresponding subtrochan- 
teric diameters 22 mm. and 28 mm. The shaft of the left measures 
28 mm. X 23 mm., and, subtrochanteric, 22 mm. and 28 mm., 
being about identical with the right. The head of the right bone 
is of large diameter, 45 mm. maximum, and shows a moderate 
degree of torsion. Shafts are prismatic in section, with pronounced 
curvature, of greater degree in the left. The compensating pilaster 
is also greater on this bone, being 7 mm. broad at the middle, while 
the maximum for the right is 6 mm. The index of pilaster (Martin) 
is 117.39 for the right and 121.74 for the left. Both indices are 
higher than in any of the racial averages given by Martin, with 
the exception of Eskimos, Veddahs, and Australians, but so great 
is the individual variation in all groups both ancient and modern 
that even the Montardit left femur falls from five to ten points 
below the upper limit of the range for groups cited. Means for 
various peoples run as follows: Cro-Magnon 111.6; France, Neo- 
lithic 111.1; France, Mediaeval 105.1; France, Modern 107.8. 
Measurements of a pair of fragmentary femora from the couche de 
galets of the Mas d’Azil (Musée de St. Germain) gave for the right 
an index of 114.29 and 113.64 for the left. Since a record of shaft 
diameters on the Mugem skeletons cannot be found and no long 
bones accompanied the burials at Ofnet and Kaufertsberg, the 
femora from Montardit and the Mas d’Azil give us our only indi- 
cation of the condition in the Mesolithic period. While in relation 
to modern Europeans this pronounced pilaster may be considered 
primitive, the fact that it is the opposite condition from that found 


FROM MONTARDIT 227 


among Neanderthal man and the anthropoid apes suggests that 
it is an ultra-human character. 

A moderate degree of platymeria characterizes the ites 
teric region of the Montardit femora, the index, identical for 
each side, being 78.57. The Azilian femora from the Mas give 
indices of 84 and 81.48, still within the limits of platymeria, and 
illustrating Martin’s statement that the condition is usually less 
pronounced on the right. The Neanderthal mean given by Boule 
is 80; the Cro-Magnon 72.2; various groups from France: Neo- 
lithic 75.1; Mediaeval 82.3; Modern 85.3. In general pronounced 
antero-posterior flattening is more characteristic of primitive 
peoples, but Boule states that the variability of this character is 
extremely high and its relation to the anthropoid condition uncer- 
tain and of little significance. The lineae asperae of the Montardit 
femora are strongly marked, particularly on the left, where the 
pilaster is also greatest. Subtrochanteric cristae and fossae are 
prominent. On the neck no ‘‘squatting facets’’ could be discerned. 

The right tibia of Montardit I (Plate 5) has a maximum length 
of 345 mm. The antero-posterior and transverse diameters of both 
left and right are 29 mm. and 22 mm., index 75.86. Below the 
nutritive foramen, the right diameters, 34 mm. and 23 mm., give 
the index of 67.65. The index of a tibia from the Mas d’Azil (St. 
Germain Collection) is also mesocneme, 65.62. This comparative 
absence of flattening is associated with pronounced backward 
inclination of the head and an S-shaped shin crest of remarkable 
sharpness. All these features are also present in the Mas d’Azil 
specimen. The external surface of the tibial shaft is concave (the 
opposite side convex). The surface of the external condyle of the 
head is concave. On the articular surface of the lower extremity 
are well defined supplementary facets for the astragalus. Unfor- 
tunately both astragali are missing. 

In relation to the thigh, the leg of this Azilian male was rather 
long (tibio-femoral index, 84.77). This value, slightly higher than 
the Cro-Magnon mean and much above the Solutrean Aurignacian 
79.9,1 corresponds with that of the Guanches of Teneriffe, Malays, 
Peruvians, and several Negro groups, a variety too wide, as 
Hooton points out,? to have great significance in racial diagnosis. 
More or less primitive peoples, as he says, tend to have higher 


1 Skeleton 3, season 1922-1923. 
2 Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands, acd African Studies, vol. viz, pp. 85-86. 


228 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


indices than Europeans, but there is no reason to consider this a 
negroid feature. 

The complete left fibula, with a maximum length of 337 mm. 
and a shaft of no clear-cut type (Hrdli¢ka 4), is without extraordi- 
nary features, but a fragment of fibula from the Mas d’Azil in 
contrast showed an extremely flattened section, and surfaces 
deeply channelled. , 

On the bones of the upper extremity, fewer accurate measure- 
ments were possible. The humeri, of which parts were present, are 
short, sturdy bones, the length of the right approximating 280 mm. 
Both shafts are prismatic in section, with middle diameter indices 
of 85.7 and 85. The heads were large, the diameter of the nearly 
complete right being 44 mm. There is no bowing of shaft. 

In both radii, however, the curve is pronounced. Bicipital 
tuberosities are well developed. Shafts of radii and ulnae as well 
are of prismatic form. The maximum length of the left ulna is 
252 mm.; the right 240 mm. without the extremity and styloid 
process, which measures 10 mm. on the left (Plate 6). If the path- 
ological condition of the ulna has caused some shortening of the 
bone, it must always have been longer than the right. In lateral 
view, the normal right bone shows no curvature. 


STATURE 


The height of the Montardit Azilian was just under 160 cm. 
Since the skeleton still possessed an entire femur, tibia, and fibula, 
it was possible to reconstruct the stature according to the tables 
of Manouvrier and the formula of Pearson. By the latter method 
based on femur and tibia, the stature is 159.8 em. The Manouvrier 
mean for femur, tibia, and fibula is 160.3 em.; for femur and tibia 
alone, 160.2 em. With the addition of figures based on the ulna, 
however, it rises to 161.3 ecm. Similar comparisons based on 
femur, humerus, and ulna of the man of Chancelade give the same 
results: Manouvrier — femur, humerus, ulna, 160.3 em.; Manou- 
vrier — femur, humerus, 158.0 em.; Pearson— femur, humerus, 157.7 
cm. This seems to bear out Pearson’s statement that if the stature- 
ulna correlation worked out as did the correlation between stature 
and radius, this bone would give very exaggerated results for prim- 
itive man.! 

1 Philosophical Transactions, vol. oxi, Ser. A (1899), p. 207. 


FROM MONTARDIT 229 


While in the case of other fossil skeletons, such as an Aurig- 
nacian from Solutré and three of the five Cro-Magnons from the 
caves of Mentone, the stature calculated from the ulna does not 
exceed that from the tibia or humerus, it is always above the mean, 
and evidently more variable and unreliable than the other bases 
of calculation. 

The stature, then, of Montardit I we shall consider as 159.8 cm. 
(Pearson formula, now used throughout the paper). Long bones of 
two individuals, cultural contemporaries, from the Mas d’Azil 
were available for some slight comparison. One, the tibia of a 
small, probably female, subject, in the Musée de St. Germain-en- 
Laye, gives a stature of 145.0 cm. The other, a femur, evidently 
in perfect condition, is represented life-size in one of the plates 
made for the unfinished volume of M. Piette. Professor Boule 
brought this to the writer’s attention, and since the bone itself 
could not be discovered in the Collection Piette at St. Germain, the 
maximum length (447 mm.) was measured from the plate. The 
stature obtained therefrom of 165.3 cm. is five and one-half centi- 
meters taller than from the femur of Montardit. 

The other Mesolithic burials which have yielded long bones, the 
shell heaps of Mugem, also indicate a short people. Seven male 
skeletons average 157.5 cm. += 3.9, and two female statures are 
147.8 em. and 152.0 cm. 

The known examples of the Mugem and Montardit peoples, 
then, fall at the upper limit of the group of lowest stature, 159.9 
em. (Martin). Few groups of European males have means of less 
than 164 cm., and the prehistoric and early historic groups also 
given by Martin offer no close comparisons except the Chance- 
lade Magdalenian and two groups of Neolithics from France. 


VERTEBRAE 


Thirteen of the sixteen vertebral segments of Montardit I were 
measureable at least in part. Wherever possible this was done 
according to the methods in Martin’s Lehrbuch, partly as documen- 
tation, but chiefly because the cervical vertebrae are, apart from 
the skull, the only human bones found at the Azilian sites of Ofnet 
and Kaufertsberg. 

Those measurements of the cervical and dorsal region for which 
comparative data could be found are given below. Other than the 


230 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


fact that the Montardit vertebrae, like most parts of the skeleton, 
are generally smaller than in most modern Europeans, they do not 
seem particularly significant. 

All vertebrae show the lightness of age, and in all regions there 
is some evidence of arthritis (Plate 7). Both foramina for the 
vertebral artery of the fourth cervical are subdivided. Owing to 
the degeneration of the lumbar region, no accurate measurements 
of ventral heights were possible. Dorsal heights of the last four 
are: 27 mm., 27 mm., 28 mm., 23 mm. 


SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND PELVIS 


The remains of the scapulae of Montardit I and II warrant little 
description. Both have heavy axillary borders. The left acromion 
of Montardit I, almost complete, is of medium size. The groove 
for the subscapularis muscle is prominent, particularly on the right 
bone. At three centimeters below the glenoid cavity — where 
Testut found a breadth of 18 mm. on the Chancelade man — the 
Montardit scapula measures 13 mm. 

From each Azilian grave one clavicle was disinterred. The left 
of Montardit I was 140 mm. long; the right of Montardit II was 
about the same length, but a sturdier bone with a curve less pro- 
nounced than that of Montardit I. 

The sternum of Montardit I was represented by the gladiolus 
nearly complete, 95 mm. in length and with a maximum thickness 
of 10 mm. No fossil and little other comparative material could 
be found. Hrdlitka? gives these averages for Munsee Indians: 
maximum thickness, males 13 mm., females 10 mm.; minimum, 
male 10 mm., female 8 mm. The Montardit gladiolus has facets 
for six ribs. 

For the pelvis, all that can be said has already been mentioned 
under Age and Sex.? 


PATELLA AND FOOTBONES 


Patella. Oddly, the scanty remains of Montardit II, unlike the 
more complete skeleton, included the right patella. It is appar- 
ently of average size, the maximum height and breadth approach- 
ing each other, although not so closely as in modern Whites or in 
the Lenapé Indians. 


1 See Pathology, p. 233. 2 Physical Anthropology of the Lenapé, p. 72. 
3 See p. 221. 


231 


FROM MONTARDIT 


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232 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


The greatest thickness is the same as that of modern Europeans and 
in contrast to the broad, thick bone of the Chancelade skeleton. 
Footbones. With both Azilian skeletons, a small number of foot- 
bones remained intact. Unfortunately, the selection in few in- 
stances was identical, so almost no comparison is possible. The 
caleanea of Montardit I have a maximum length of 79 mm., which 
coincides with Southwestern Indian groups measured by Hrdlié¢ka. 
For 55 United States Whites the mean is 83.3 mm., and the heel of 
the fossil skeleton of Chancelade, of stature slightly less than Mon- 
tardit, has a length of 87 mm., while three Cro-Magnons from 
Grimaldi range from 88-97 mm. The Montardit caleanea exhibit 


TABLE 2. Ricgut PaTetuaA MALE 


Height Breadth 
Maximum Maximum Index Thickness 
Montardit: Liane. ee 42.0 44.0 104.7 19.0 
3 Cro-Magnon, Mentone 47.0 50.0 105.8 Z 
Chancelade: 2.4.0) see: 44.0 52.0 118.2 25.0 
8 Munsee Indians!..... 45.0 46.0 102.8 21.0 
100 United States Whites! 45.6 46.0 1017 21.0 
Europeans (Martin) .... 41.2 42.4 102.9 19.3 


no torsion. Three facets for the astragalus are present, a condition 
which Hrdli¢ka found in 74 per cent of 125 Whites and Indians. 
This is also true of the Chancelade os calcis. 

A first metatarsal was present in both skeletons, Montardit I, 
left, Montardit II, right; lengths 58 mm. and 63 mm. The right 
bone from Chancelade measures 64 mm. Means for males given by 
Martin are as follows: Europeans 60.2 mm.; Japanese 54.4 mm.; 
Hottentots 53 mm.; by Hrdli¢ka (both sexes): Munsee Indians 
63 mm.; United States Whites 66 mm. 

Montardit II still retained a left scaphoid and a right cuboid 
and internal cuneiform. The measurements of these, together with 
those of the Chancelade skeleton and the means for Whites and 
Indians, show the same tendency noted in the other footbones to 
be always slightly smaller than the Indian, but nearer to them than 
to the other figures. 


1 Hrdlitka, Physical Anthropology of the Lenapé. 


FROM MONTARDIT , 233 


TABLE 3. TARsuS 


Lert ScarHoip, Mae 


Height- Stoutness- 
Breadth Breadth Breadth 
Maximum Height Stoutness Index Index 
Montardit II ...... eee.) 20.5 27.0 52.6 69.23 
Chancelade ......... 43.0 20.0 ? 46.5 4 
TER a. ey ys 41.3 20.8 25.9 50.4 62.8 
United States Whites 43.5 22.3 29.6 51.5 68.5 


RicHtT Cusor, Mae 
Breadth- Thickness- 


Length Length 

Length Breadth Thickness Index Index 

iN Pera ga ia ka bt | ee ana 38.0 29.0 23.0 76.3 60.5 
Chancelade ......... 42.5 30.0 25.0 70.6 58.8 
DU VRE? Cl ee 37.5 28.5 25.2 75.8 67.1 
United States Whites 39.6 30.2 25.9 76.3 65.5 


Rieut INTERNAL CuNEIFORM, Maer 
Breadth Height Breadth-Height Index 


Montardit II ........ 22.0 34.0 64.7 
Chancelade.....72.:.. z4 37.0 ? 
Ese ts won. 22.4 31.7 70.7 


United States Whites 24:3 34.8 69.9 


The remaining footbones, fourth metatarsal right and left of 
Montardit II, had lengths of 64 mm. and 66 mm. The average for 
Europeans (Martin) is 66.7 mm. 

Montardit I also still possessed the two third metacarpals, 
lengths 63 mm., corresponding with the European mean cited by 
Martin of 62.8 mm. 


PATHOLOGY 


Abscesses and inflammatory disease have left traces in three 
regions of the Montardit skeleton: alveolar borders, the vertebrae, 
and the shaft of the left ulna. Such a condition as has already been 
described in the molar region of maxilla and mandible must have 
sent out a septic stream to all parts of the body which may well 
account for the state of the ulna. Below the nutrient foramen and 
extending downward for 29 mm., there is pronounced anterior 
bulging of the shaft, and nearer the extremity a second bulge of 
less circumference and of 26 mm. in length. The slight displace- 
ment and obvious absence of shortening in comparison with the 


234 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


normal right bone rules out the possibility of a double fracture. 
Nor does the region suggest arthritis. Lues, favorite speculation 
of palaeopathologists, would be hard to prove, particularly since 
no lesions appear on skull or long bones. Roentgenograms may 
shed some light on the cause, but for the moment, at least, it is 
safest to leave it at disease, ostitis; cause, possibly teeth (Plate 6). 

In the three upper regions of the vertebral column, pathological 
changes are evident. All of the vertebrae are very light, and many 
centra show age depression. On the third and fourth cervical, 
marked depressions are associated with marginal exostoses of ar- 
thritic type; slight exostoses are also present on the bodies of two 
dorsal vertebrae, and in the lumbar region age and arthritis have 
combined in destruction. The cranial surface of the third lumbar 
vertebra is depressed at the center and a rough exostosis edges the 
upper ventral border. The centrum of the fourth is intact, but a 
pronounced exostosis follows the entire lower ventral border. It is 
in the fifth, however, that the disease is most advanced (Plate 7). 
. The upper surface of the bone has been eaten away anteriorly almost 
to the inferior surface. The lower face of the centrum is normal in 
appearance, but exostoses of exceptional size protrude from both 
borders. At the margin of the inferior surface, this bony outgrowth 
is 9 mm. thick at the center and extends 7 mm. below the surface of 
the body. It is this exuberant growth of bone which indicates ar- 
thritis deformans rather than spondylitis tuberculosa which the con- 
dition of the centra might otherwise suggest. Bartels 1 has described 
a case of vertebral caries, probably tubercular, from the Neolithic 
period. The fourth, fifth, and sixth dorsals were coalesced and the 
bodies greatly reduced. No other signs of malady appeared on 
long bones or articulations, and no lesions on the skull. The chief. 
interest, the author states, is this evidence of the great age of the 
disease, the oldest case previously cited being from the Merovin- 
gian period. 

This same factor, the ancient origin of disease, again confronts 
us in the much older remains from Montardit. And at this far-off 
moment, the exact nature of that malady and its interrelation with 
age, arthritis, and alveolar abscesses it is safer to speculate upon 
than to state. 


1 Archiv fir Ant., vol. v1 (1907), pp. 243-255. 


FROM MONTARDIT 235 


MORPHOLOGICAL RATING 


F'rom time to time in the descriptive notes of the Azilian skel- 
eton, we have spoken of characteristics showing degrees of develop- 
ment differing widely in the evolutionary scale. Thus we have in 
the lower jaw the typical apelike smoothness of the mylo-hyoid 
region associated with genial tubercles of ultra-human type, and 
an extreme condition of the sharp European shin-crest together 
with primitive ‘‘squatting facets’ and retroversion of the tibial 
head. 

This tendency to inequality in morphological traits, not only in 
such striking cases as the Piltdown jaw and cranium, and the 
brain-case and femur of Pithecanthropus erectus, but also in all 
modern types of man, has recently been brought forward by 
Professor Earnest A. Hooton of Harvard University. In order to 
demonstrate the essentially asymmetrical character of human evo- 


TaBLeE 4. Mran RatTines or CRANIA 


(Hooton) 
Standard 
Brain Case Face Total Deviation 
Gorilla, male ..... Te ee 1.33 1.65 io) 0.59 
Orang-utan, male ........ is 1.52 1.68 0.90 
Gorilla, female........... 1.89 2.00 1.95 0.66 
Orang-utan, female....... 2.20 1.74 1.98 0.81 
Chimpanzee, male ....... 2.00 2.13 2.07 0.64 
Pithecanthropus ......... 2.64 — 2.64 0.77 
aeetel bere yc ..2..-...... — 2.70 2.70 0.83 
ret ee. a St 3.05 3.86 3.46 1.00 
PAGO WE ieee ee kas.» 4.31 2.30 3.63 1.17 
PVOEMUEEUNGI) as... . ss 3.47 3.74 3.63 0.89 
ROUGI ET oO Sa eae er 4.00 3.65 3.81 0.88 
CRORE SS 4.16 3.91 4.00 0.96 
OMS PA eS rr 3.83 4.30 4.10 0.65 
Combe Capelle .......... 4.39 4.13 4,24 0.88 
a Se ek 4.50 4,22 4.34 0.65 
RIAL eg as sk hw es 4.92 4.56 4.71 0.88 
UL OT Sh a 4.94 4.43 4.71 0.67 
OPO TD Ye 2 ae ea a 4.89 4.78 4.83 0.69 
Mediterranean........... 5.22 5.00 5.10 0.93 
“Ay li oe Si re 5.30 5.09 5.20 0.96 
LOIS Oe Se Sia 5.61 4.96 5.24 0.69 


1 This memoir. 


236 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


lution, he has devised a scheme of morphological rating ! whereby 
the cranial characters of the apes and all types of man can be evalu- 
ated in terms of lagging or progression. For each trait, there are 
six degrees of development from ultra-anthropoid to ultra-human. 


TABLE 5. MorpHouoGicaAL RATING OF MONTARDIT I 


(Hooton SCALE) 
Frontal Region 


Brow-ridges 0.6 een OW ens nye os oer 4 

Elevation 2.0.6.6. 0.004 obs eke ae oes): ys ge 5 

Slope . oa... bos Vee eGR Ge 5 

Postorbital constriction” —..9. 32... <2.) .5e))) oe 5 

Breadth ..4 0.5... s«!s «subs + sete tosis os ally 8 ars 5 
Sagittal Region 

Breadth. . 2. 055. sve gua ee oe ee 4 

Crest, elevation 2... 0.0.2 cacue sau) oa ooo 6 
Temporal Region 

Supra-mastoid ‘crest 2.0.0.9. $1463 203 ee 4 

Fullness. . s..us 53 ssa ulsieve 's aretiw oe Rye bee er 5 

Mastoids isc 5 icc. 26 ee als wk eyo ete ook eg 6 
Occipital Region 

Shape . 26. 6G. bs. See eed ooo ee gue ee ee 4 

Inion «3 Miia ea eed wad sg Gale gee eae eo ee 6 
Facial Region 

Orbits: inclination, proportion, shape = 2........4 eee 4 

Lower borders of nasal aperture ...., «.¢.. +): 4 

Nasal spine. 0... 000.3255 ss eae ee Be Se 4 

Nasion depression ..22.....6.++5e 6 obs + 5 ee er + 
Prognathism 

Alveolar 's 0.600. Scan S05) we oo te ale aoe ee oe 6 
Palate 

Proportions: . 242. css. tks ss a po se ant 

Shape |... 6.5 ..2 62-25 byes ba saw On ee ee 5 
Mandible 

ot Orie A 5 

CHIN. 0. a ce ee le te os ble Ruel natin ee eee 5 

Genial tubercles:.... 0... 9.50000 oe os oe 6 

Mylo-hyoid ridge. ocd. 5 eet ote 54 5 ta er 3 

Breadth, ascending ramus ..2 2. Jef...) . ss ee 4 
Teeth 

Canines, projection, diastema:.............. . » see 5 

Molars, proportion of crowns ...... Wises 65 (1 neo 5 

Relative size of first and second molars ................... 3 

Mean 4.71 


_ 


Am. Jour. Phys. Anthrop., vol. v1 (1925), pp. 125-140. 


FROM MONTARDIT 237 


1. Ultra-anthropoid; 2. Typically anthropoid; 3. Sub-human, 
supra-anthropoid; 4. Inferior human; 5. Typically human; 6. 
Ultra-human. The mean rating of crania with standard deviations 
is given below, with the addition of the Montardit skull. 

With 28 of the 41 morphological characters present in the Azil- 
ian cranium, a fair rating was obtainable in the following manner. 

The total mean of these 28 characters, 4.71, somewhat more than 
halfway between the inferior human and typically human groups, 
is higher than for any fossil skull rated by Hooton. It is almost 
identical with the Mongol on his scale. Rated separately, the 
brain-case shows itself to be both more highly evolved and less 
variable than the facial region, brain-case 4.92 + 0.76; facial 
region 4.56 + 0.93. It is in the mandible of the man of Montardit 
that the only two features rated less than inferior human (4) occur. 

In 13 out of 19 types, the brain-case is the more highly evolved 
region, this being uniformly true of the eight highest means (in- 
cluding Montardit). The orang-utan, both male and female, the 
Piltdown and Talgai skulls, and Eskimo crania follow the same 
rule. But Neanderthal man, the Broken Hill skull, the modern 
Australian, together with gorilla and chimpanzee, have developed 
in the opposite manner, the evolution of the brain-case not keeping 
pace with the reduction of primitive features in the face and jaws. 


Zones AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


COMPARATIVE DATA 


There can be little scientific satisfaction in drawing conclusions 
as to race type from a solitary specimen, nor can the fairly amusing 
game of minute comparisons with isolated individuals from other 
epochs lead to brilliant discoveries. But until some ninety-nine 
additional men who inhabited the Pyrenees during the Azilian 
culture period are unearthed, we simply put on record the unreli- 
able first, and wait hopefully for more. In the meantime, such 
comparisons as the Montardit material warrants have been drawn 
with late palaeolithic predecessors, together with a more detailed 
study of possible relationship to human remains from other Azilio- 
Tardenoisian sites. 


I. UPPER PALAEOLITHIC 


The three types of fossil men associated with Aurignacian and 
Magdalenian cultures selected for comparison with the Montardit 
burials are the Cro-Magnon peoples, the Chancelade skeleton, and 
the more recent finds at Solutré. The position of the Montardit 
man in the evolutionary scale rules out the necessity of seeking 
kinship to the Neanderthal race, and the common possession of 
traits more or less primitive but typically human within these 
later groups makes generalized kinship obvious. 

From the Cro-Magnon as represented by the three individuals 
from the type site and the five males from the caves of Mentone, 
the Montardit skull differs obviously in capacity and proportions. 
It is shorter by 22 mm. and with a cubic volume, according to the 
Pearson formula 10 bis, of more than 300 c.c. under that for the Old 
Man of Cro-Magnon. Whereas all the specimens cited above are 
distinetly dolichocephalic, the Azilian index reaches mesocephaly. 
The author, through the great courtesy of Professor Verneau, was 
privileged to examine the three crania from Cro-Magnon and to 
make the morphological observations tabulated below. 

Evidently, with these pronounced types which gave rise to the 
belief in the homogeneity of a tall, dolichocephalic, disharmonic 
Aurignacian race, the Montardit skull has little in common, but 
within a group which may include such aberrant individuals as 
the small brachycephalic female from Le Placard, and during an 
era which we now know saw the high, sub-brachycephals of Solutré 


FROM MONTARDIT 239 


MontarpitT I 

Norma lateralis 
Simple curve, reaching greatest 
height, ca.25 mm. before obelion. 
Moderate flattening between obe- 
lion and lambda. 

Occiput 
Convex. No protuberance. In- 
ion small but clearly marked. 


Temporal bosses 
Non-salient. 
N.B.  Supra-mastoid crests as 
large as C-M I. Mastoids size of 
2 C-M II 

Brow-ridges 
Pronounced development not only 
in sinus region but extending to 
and associated with great thicken- 
ing of orbital border. 

Orbits 
Shorter and a bit higher than C-M. 

Mandible 


Cro-Maaenon I, II, III 


I, II, and III all show frontal ris- 
ing to bregma, post-coronoid de- 
pression and continuation of curve. 


Flattened in the lambdoid region 
and extremely protuberant. Torus 
large. 


Low and outstanding. 


Pronounced over region of frontal 
sinus, then disappear. (C-M I 
and III, and Verneau’s observa- 
tions for Grimaldi.) 


Very long and low. 


Slender. Heavy. Ascending ramus wide. 
Eversion of gonial angles. Chin — triangular. 
Chin — oval. 


well established in France, there is the possibility of finding closer 
kinship. 

In comparison with the most complete Cro-Magnon under our 
observation (the ‘‘Old Man”’), one region of the Montardit cal- 
varium showed distinctly greater development — the portion of the 
vault between bregma and lambda. The arc between these points 
measured 130 mm. alike for Cro-Magnon I and the two small Mon- 
tardit skulls, and the diameter only 5 mm. less than Montardit I 
and 2 mm. less than Montardit II, whereas the difference between 
the glabello-occipital lengths of Cro-Magnon I and Montardit I is 
22 mm. The diameter bregma-lambda of the Montardit is 64% 
of the glabello-occipital; the Cro-Magnon 59.9. Associated with 
this is an auricular-bregma height — maximum length index of 
61.4 for Cro-Magnon in contrast to 65 for Montardit. 

The difference in the low stature of the Azilian man and the high 
Cro-Magnon mean! is outstanding, but in type and stage of devel- 

15 from Grimaldi 182 (Tables of Manouvrier); Old Man of Cro-Magnon 177. 


240 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


opment, the limb bones in the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de 
Paris conform closely to those of the small successor. The Cro- 
Magnon femur is less curved, the angle of the neck less open, the 
torsion of the head more pronounced, but the pilaster, the linea 
aspera, and the development of the sub-trochanteric region while 
evidencing heavier musculature are of the same primitive human 
variety. The maximum diameter of the head, 48 mm., is almost 
equalled by the Azilian bone, 47mm. The tibiae of both specimens 
have a pronounced backward inclination of the head, but the Cro- 
Magnon shin crest is relatively indistinct in contrast to the sharp- 
ness of Montardit I. 

In two features in which it differs widely from the Cro-Magnon 
type, the Montardit Azilian most nearly approaches the Magda- 
lenian man of Chancelade. Both were short; both were hypsiceph- 
alic, and in degree the honors were divided. The Chancelade man 
is the shorter by 21 mm. (Pearson formula) and Montardit I has 
length-auricular height index higher by 2 points. Such limb bones 
as can be compared are of nearly equal length; — femur, maximum, 
Montardit 407 mm.; Chancelade 408 mm.; ulna, 252 mm. and 255 
mm. The upper arm of the Magdalenian was probably longer, the 
humerus measuring 300 mm., while the bone of the Montardit 
man could not have been much over 280 mm. Testut,' comparing 
his subject with means derived from ten European males, finds the 
humerus massive in relation to its length, with an “indice de 
largeur”’ of 88. The European mean is 69, so that of Montardit (75) 
is also relatively robust. With its greater length and breadth, 
however, the Chancelade arm bone has a smaller head; diameter 
39.5 mm., Montardit 44 mm. Measurements of the clavicle indi- 
cate a man of broader build than the two Azilians; the length 
maximum of 148 mm. surpasses the Montardit collar bones by 
8 mm. The middle diameters of all three are nearly identical. 
Testut’s description of the Chancelade clavicle, distinguished by 
‘“‘sa gracilité et degré de courbure,”’ is equally appropriate to 
Montardit I. The general characteristics of the leg bones — fem- 
ora slightly curved, with pilaster and sub-trochanteric fossa; tibial 
heads distinctly retroverted — conform to the primitive pattern 
of Cro-Magnon and Montardit. The unusual size of the Chance- 
lade feet have already been noted in the description of the Mon- 
tardit tarsus. 

1 Bull. Soc. d’Anth. de Lyon, vol. vi11, pp. 131-246. 


FROM MONTARDIT 241 


When we consider the cranial characters of the Magdalenian, 
aside from the length-height relation, we find little in common. 
The Chancelade skull is large, distinctly dolichocephalic (index 72), 
and even after the Testut capacity of 1710 c¢.c. (taken with mustard 
seed) shrinks by the Lee-Pearson computation to 1532 ¢.c.; the 
brain size contrasts all too favorably with the little man of Mon- 
tardit. Moreover, it is in just those peculiarly Eskimoid traits 
which distinguish the Chancelade skull that the Azilian is wholly 
lacking. Of the four characters which Hooton! names as distinc- 
tively Eskimoid, mandibular and palatine torus, thickness of tym- 
panic plate, and scaphoid vault, the first two are prominent in the 
Chancelade skull and totally absent in the Montardit mouth, while 
the small median elevation of the frontal bone has no continuation 
in the sagittal region, no hint of the typically Eskimoid ridge so 
marked on the Chancelade vault. As for the thickness of the 
tympanic plate, this could not be measured on the Magdalenian 
specimen as only a cast was available, but the Montardit maximum 
thickness of 4 mm. compared to various averages (Eskimo 6 mm., 
Icelanders 5 mm., Italians 4.5 mm., Southern California Indians 
4 mm.) seems as far removed as the other three traits from the 
conditions hereditary or functional which gave the Chancelade 
cranium its characteristic form. 

From these two palaeolithic types with which, in their distinc- 
tive features at least, the Montardit Azilian has little in common, 
we now turn to a group which illustrates the variety and complex- 
ity of human types at a period earlier than was once believed. 
The skulls excavated from Aurignacian strata at Solutré during 
the seasons 1923 and 1924, while retaining various Cro-Magnon 
features such as outstanding parietal bosses contributing to the 
well-known pentagonoid form, faces short and very broad and 
long low orbits, are by no means so disharmonic. These are much 
shorter skulls with cephalic indices ranging from 78 to 83, Justify- 
ing the conclusion that ‘“‘la dolicocephalie des Paléolithiques ne 
doit plus étre considerée comme un dogme absolu.’”? Also in con- 
trast to the Cro-Magnon type, these are hypsicephalic crania with 
auricular height-length indices of 68 and 71, much higher than 
Montardit. Capacities, while somewhat below many of the Cro- 


1 Am. Jour. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 1, pp. 53-76. 
2 Arcelin et Mayet, Bulletin 2, Assoc. Reg. de Paléont. Humaine, Lyon (1924), p. 25. 


242 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


Magnon figures, are still high, two males having cubic contents of 
1515 ec, and:1613 ‘ec 

The stature of these two, by the Pearson formula, is 171 cm. 
and 175 em., while for a third 160 cm. to 170 em. is given,! and a 
female was only about 154 cm. The long bones are robust, but 
lack the primitive features noted in all others previously described. 
No platymeria is present, no femoral pilaster, and in the sub- 
trochanteric region there is no trace of fossa or third trochanter; 
the tibiae are very slightly platyenemic, and a tibio-femoral index 
of 79.9 is the same as Broca’s mean for modern Europeans. 

In relation to the Azilians of Montardit, this group from Solutré 
is significant, not because of many common traits, but rather for 
the proof they add of the complex heredity of man long before the 
end of the palaeolithic period. 


Il. MESOLITHIC 


It is in the Azilio-Tardenoisian culture strata of western Europe 
that we find human remains near, not only in era and industry 
but in physical type as well, to the men of Montardit. If we disre- 
gard material from all sites of doubtful stratification, such as 
Furfooz and Sous-Sac (Ain),? we have, in addition to the frag- 
mentary long bones from the Mas d’Azil, the Tardenoisian burials, 
representing nearly fifty individuals from the shell heaps of Mugem, 
Portugal, and the crania from the Bavarian sites of Ofnet and 
Kaufertsberg. 

Of the arm and leg bones from the Mas d’Azil, mention has 
already been made in the discussion of the extremities and stature 
of Montardit I. Fragmentary as they are, their provenience 
justifies detailed examination. The type site of the Azilian culture, 
where the research of Edouard Piette upset all earlier beliefs in a 
complete hiatus between the Old and the New Stone Ages, is less 
than twenty miles from the T'row Viclet of Montardit. There, in 
the stratum of painted pebbles, Piette found human remains which 
he described in a brief article.* ‘‘Les os longs avaient été mis en 
tas & coté de la machoire inférieure.... . tous rougis par du 
peroxide de fer — quelques-uns — rayés par le tranchant d’un 

1 Boule, L’ Anthropologie, vol. xxxv, p. 188. 


2 Boule, L’ Anthropologie (1904), ‘‘Mouvement scientifique.” 
3 Bull. de la Soc. d’ Anth. (1895), p. 485. 


243 


FROM MONTARDIT 





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244 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


) 


silex.’’ A femur showed ‘‘une petite dépression triangulaire résul- 
tdnt d’une blessure faite par une fléche.’’ The skull and all small 
bones, he reports, were missing. 

Nothing in the burial customs here pictured suggests the Azilian 
graves at Montardit. In contrast to a heap of limb bones, the 
complete extended skeleton of Montardit I within its frame of 
stones showed no traces of scraping by flint knives or artificial 
coloration. On the bones of Montardit II as well, there were no 
marks to be unquestionably explained by other than natural causes. 
It was in morphology, then, rather than archaeology that analo- 
gies were to be sought. First of all, however, it was necessary to 
find the bones themselves. Thanks to the suggestions of Professor 
Boule and the kindness of various members of the staff of the pre- 
historic museum at St. Germain-en-Laye, the writer was able to 
measure and observe certain of these human fragments. In the 
Collection Piette at the Musée de St. Germain were found parts 
of two femora, a tibia, two humeri, a piece of a fibula and one of a 
right ulna. There was no sign of the mandible mentioned by 
Piette, but the provenience of these bones — ‘‘couche du galets, 
Mas d’Azil”’ — and the traces they bore both of red coloring mat- 
ter and flint cuts, seemed to indicate their identity with the de- 
scription above. Red color appeared along the pilaster ridges of the 
femora and on the tibia; scratches suggesting the use of flint knives 
were present on the neck of the left femur, and the right humerus 
showed many of these marks at the distal articulation. 

In general, the character of the bones resembled the segments 
of the Montardit extremities. The femora — represented by the 
greater portion of the right diaphysis and the head and two-thirds 
of the left diaphysis — had marked pilasters, some platymeria, 
well developed lineae asperae, and pronounced sub-trochanteric 
fossae, all traits found in Montardit I. The diameter of the head, 
38 mm., is appreciably smaller than that of the old Montardit 
male, and the diaphysis is more slender. The tibia from the Mas 
d’Azil, short, slender, and probably female (length ca. 307 mm., 
middle diameters 24 mm. and 17 mm., index 70.83), also exhibits 
characters prominent in Montardit I, particularly the extremely 
sharp shin crest associated with retroversion of the head. Of the 
two fragmentary humeri, the left shaft is bowed, the right straight; 
there was no bowing of either Montardit humerus. The bits of 


FROM MONTARDIT 245 


fibula and ulna from the Mas were deeply channelled and flattened; 
on the ulna, the line descending from the articular surface for 
the radius was very sharp. 

A colored plate prepared for a monograph which Piette did not 
live to write reproduced a femur of life size with a maximum length 
of 447 mm. Calculations of stature from this and from the female 
tibia will be found in the section on Stature. 

From the Tardenoisian shell heaps of Mugem in Portugal comes 
evidence of another short mesolithic group. Near the bottom of a 
mound seven meters high were found remains of fifty individuals.? 
The accompanying fragments of animal bones, burned but not 
gnawed, included specimens of cervus, ovus, equus, sus, canis, felis, 
meles, viverra, lepus, and a few fish. Flint implements were scarce. 
Simple bone points, chips of stag horn, and an ornament made 
from a perforated pebble completed the industry.* No ochre was 
used in the burial rites and skeletons were found entire. The ab- 
sence of these characteristics of Ofnet and Kaufertsberg suggests 
the Montardit graves. Few of the skeletons, however, were fully 
extended, the majority being tightly flexed. 

By far the greater number of skulls were dolichocephalic; two 
were brachycephalic and one was sub-brachycephalic. Seven of 
the dolichocephals were measurable. They are described as ‘‘trés 
homogénes.’’ Long skulls are associated with long faces. Some 
prognathism, particularly sub-nasal, was present. The brow-ridges 
of the males were strongly developed. Cranial walls were thick 
and capacities small. Number 6, a male, of which Francisco Paula 
e Oliveira gives complete measurements,’ is shown in Figure 1. 
Like Montardit I, this is a small skull with heavy brow-ridges and 
thick walls, accompanied by a mandible with marked eversion of 
the gonions. The maximum cranial breadths are nearly equal, but 
a greater length of 5 mm. in the Mugem male gives an index three 
points lower (73.0). The Montardit skull is the higher. Of the 
mandibular measurements, the heights of symphysis and ramus 
are close, but the Mugem ramus is broader than the very slender 
Montardit specimen. The cranial capacities were probably about 
equal. The figures given for Mugem 6 are approximately 1490 c.c. 
“par la méthode de l’indice cubique”’ and labelled ‘“‘trés peu 


1 See page 228. 2 Carthailac, Les Ages préhistoriques de l’Espagne. 
3 See Treat and Vaillant-Couturier for similar industry at Montardit. 
4 Carthailac, op. cit. 


246 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


volumineux.’”’ The auricular height not being given, the writer 
used the Lee-Pearson formula 12 (method of least squares), which 
involves basion-bregma height. The result, 1408 c.c., is too large. 
The Kaufertsberg skull, soon to be described, with both these 
heights measurable had a capacity of 1473 ¢c.c. by formula 12 and 
1432 c.c. by formula 10 bis (see Table 6), an excess of about three 
per cent. The Mugem capacity, then, reduces to 1370 c.c., slightly 
smaller than that of Montardit. 

In outline, the two skulls show certain differences. The al- 
veolar prognathism of the Mugem skull has been mentioned. The 









ear 


Figure 1 


Male cranium from Mugem 
(after Carthailac) 


parietal flattening above lambda characteristic of both Montardit 
profiles seems to extend well down the Mugem occiput; the lower 
vault also contributes to the deviations. But in the interrelation- 
ship of small size and great muscularity, and in total absence of 
Cro-Magnon outlines and disharmony, the total impression is of 
similarity, if not of the closest kinship. 

The stature of the Montardit Azilians and the Mugem Tarde- 
noisians contributes to this common picture and has already been 
mentioned. The mean statures for 7 males from Mugem calcu- 
lated from all possible long bones was 156.0 cm. by the Manouvrier 
tables and 157.5 cm. by the Pearsonian method. Montardit I had 
a stature of 159.8 cm. The Mugem range was from 154.1 cm. to 
159.8 em. Only bones of the upper extremity were available for 
the calculation of female stature, so the two heights, 152.0 cm. 
and 147.8 em., are not exactly comparable to the small, probably 
female stature of 145.0 cm. from the Mas d’Azil, which was based 
on a tibia. All, however, fall within the same group of remarkably 


FROM MONTARDIT 247 


low stature whose closest affinities among European racial groups 
are to certain neolithic peoples of France. 

The most famous mesolithic site from the anthropologist’s point 
of view, Ofnet in Bavaria, adds nothing to our knowledge of stature 
contemporary with the short men of the Portuguese coast and the 
French Pyrenees. Only skulls and cervical vertebrae were found 
in that spectacular group of twenty men, women, and children 
smeared with ochre and ornamented with shells and canine teeth. 
Several studies of the stratification, burial rites, and industry are 
well known, particularly those of Schmidt and Breuil. The simi- 
lar setting for the individual from Kaufertsberg is less familiar. 
There also was found only the skull, with atlas and axis. They lay 
in red ochre. No ornaments were discovered, but the fauna and 
flint implements were clearly Azilian.1 Secondary burial associa- 
ted with the use of red ochre occurred in the Azilian layers of the 
Mas d’Azil, but seems to have included the entire skeleton,? while 
the simplicity of the Montardit and Mugem burials, flexed or 
extended, suggest a different cultural chain. 

In physical characteristics, however, the closest kinship is be- 
_ tween the Montardit crania, the Kaufertsberg skull, and one of 
the types from Ofnet. Fortunately, there is available for the study 
of these groups the exhaustive monograph by Dr. Walter Scheidt 
with its excellent photographs and life-size reproductions of draw- 
ings made by the Martin diagraph. Among the fourteen adults 
from Ofnet, Scheidt recognized five types of which the two extremes 
of dolichocephaly and brachycephaly he thinks show strong affii- 
ations with Cro-Magnon and Grenelle. It is with type III repre- 
sented by the Ofnet male skull 1800 and by the adult male from 
Kaufertsberg that we are chiefly concerned. Scheidt’s description 
of these two crania follows:* medium size, muscular; mesocephalic; 
very high; oval in norma verticalis; moderately broad, well devel- 
oped frontal region; uniformly developed parietal region with 
pre-lambdoid depression; occipital region symmetrical and non- 
protuberant; strong muscle relief; strongly marked glabella and 
supra-orbital ridges; mesognathous. 

In addition to the striking similarity of this description, there 
is the frequent identity of measurements between Montardit I and 


1 ¥, Birkner, ‘‘Der Eiszeitmensch in Bayern,’’ Beitr. Anth., vol. x1x, Munich, 1914. 
2 Noskulls were preserved, but Piette mentions the discovery of a mandible. 
3 W. Scheidt, Die eiszeitlichen Schddelfunde aus der Grossen Ofnet, p. 86. 


248 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


Kaufertsberg (Table 6) and the striking number of common points 
in the superimposed profiles (Fig. 2.) The four measurements of 
the axis, the only instance of the same vertebra found with both 
skulls, all indicate a more robust development in the Montardit 
specimen (Table 1). 

That trait in which the Kaufertsberg skull differs most widely 
from Ofnet 1800 is the narrowness of the face. Unfortunately, this 





FIGuRE 2 


Superimposition of sagittal arcs of Montardit I and Kaufertsberg skulls 
Montardit I Kaufertsberg - - - - -. Life size 





region was too fragmentary in the Montardit cranium for either 
measurement or speculation. Scheidt stresses the potential sig- 
nificance of this facial form in a discussion of the possible origins 
of the Ofnet-Kaufertsberg group.! Between the two, he finds only 
a moderate racial affinity. The Ofnet group, however, contains 
such extreme forms as the low dolichocephalic Cro-Magnon type 
and the extremely brachycephalic of Grenelle, and the divergence 
of the Kaufertsberg skull from its nearest affinity at Ofnet is not 


1 Der nacheiszeitliche Schddelfunde vom Kaufertsberg. 


FROM MONTARDIT 249 


so great as the five Ofnet types from one another. The Azilian 
period was a time of mixing of types very far apart, and the narrow 
face of Kaufertsberg may be considered either as a new, not yet 
known racial element, or as the result of racial crossing. 

Further evidence to strengthen Dr. Scheidt’s conception of the 
Azilian as an age of racial mixture is certainly present in the asso- 
ciation of long and short skulls at Mugem. All these skulls were 
small and all the long bones indicated low stature. It would be 
of inestimable value to know the stature of Ofnet 1818, the ‘‘Cro- 
Magnon” male with a glabello-occipital diameter of 205 mm.,and 
that of the two males so closely resembling Montardit I. Racial 
origins and racial affinities can never be based on the skull alone. 
At Ofnet, the individual nearest to Montardit I was an intermediate 
type. We cannot be sure, however, that he represented a mixture 
of the two extremes also present, nor can we definitely associate him 
by analogy with the descendant of the most specialized palaeolithic 
peoples and the forerunner of a prominent neolithic type who was 
buried in the Trou Violet at Montardit. 

Mixture undoubtedly did take place in the Azilian period, and 
doubtless much earlier. Or new forms other than those once 
believed peculiar to the pre-neolithic may then have put in a 
European appearance. Certainly the skulls from Solutré bear 
evidences of types far from classical before the Aurignacian ended. 


250 AZILIAN SKELETAL REMAINS 


SUMMARY 


The remains of the two Azilians found in the Trou Violet at 
Montardit in the French Pyrenees, so far as the few traits preserved 
in common are concerned, seem homogeneous in type. This judg- 
ment rests largely on the parietal region and on the thickness and 
muscularity of both skulls. 

The almost complete skeleton, Montardit I, an old male, was of 
short stature (159.8 em.). The bones of the extremities show 
various traits primitive as opposed to modern European but in no 
way suggesting anthropoid characters. The degree of development 
of the cranium can be similarly placed. Small, with heavy brow- 
ridges and mastoids, non-prognathous, mesocephalic, hypsiceph- 
alic, and with several contradictory features in the mandible, its 
final rating on the Hooton evolutionary scale is identical with the 
modern Mongol and surpassed only by Mediterranean, Nordic, and 
Alpine. 

Certain abnormalities of maxilla, ulna, and vertebrae caused by 
age and disease add further items to the lists of palaeopathology. 

The racial affiliations of the Montardit people seem to lie not in 
the groups of the Upper Palaeolithic but in the Azilo-Tardenoisian 
types of France, Portugal, and Bavaria. Low stature is common 
to Montardit, the Mas d’Azil, and Mugem. There are similarities 
between Montardit and Mugem skulls, and between Scheidt’s 
Type III Ofnet-Kaufertsberg crania and the skull of Montardit I 
a large number of traits are identical. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Arcelin et Mayet 
Solutré; Les fouilles de 1907, 1922 et 1923. Assoc. Régionale de Palé- 
ontologie Humaine, Bull. 2, Lyons, 1924. 

Bartels, Paul 
Tuberkulose (Wirbelkaries) in der jiingeren Steinzeit. Archiv fiir 
Anthropologie, neue folge, vol. v1 (Braunschweig, 1907), pp. 243-255. 

Boule, Marcellin 
Les hommes fossiles. Paris, 1923. 

Boule, Marcellin 
L’homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints. Annales de Paléontologie, 
vol. v1, Paris, 1911. 

Boule, Marcellin 
Nouvelles découvertes de squelettes humains 4 Solutré. L’Anthropol- 
ogie, vol. xxxv (1925), p. 188. 

Boule, Marcellin 
Les nouvelles fouilles de Solutré. L’Anthropologie, vol. xxx (1928), 
Nouvelles et Correspondance. 

Breuil, H. 
Les subdivisions du paléolithique supérieur et leur signification. 
Compte rendu du xiv™® Congrés d’Anthropol. et d’Archéol. Préhist., 
vol. 1 (Geneva, 1913), pp. 223-227. j 

Breuil, H. 
Le gisement quaternaire d’Ofnet (Baviére) et sa sépulture mésolith- 
ique. L’Anthropologie, vol. xx (1909), pp. 207-214. 

Breuil et Obermaier 
Cranes paléolithiques fagonnes en coupes. L’Anthropologie, vol. xx 
(1909), pp. 523-530. 

Carthailhac, Emil 
Les Ages préhistoriques de l’Espagne et du Portugal. Anthropologie 
par Paula e Oliveria, Paris, 1886. 

Corréa, A. A. Mendes 
A propos des caractéres inférieurs de quelques cranes préhistoriques 
du Portugal. Archivo de Anatomia e Anthropologia, vol. m1 (Lisbon, 
1917), pp. 221-237. 

Depéret, Arcelin et Mayet 
Nouvelles découvertes dans le gisement préhistorique de Solutré. 
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Institut de France, vol. 
CLXXIX (1924), p. 1374. 


252 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Hamy, E. T. 
Nouveaux matériaux pour servir 4 l'étude de la Paléontologie humaine. 
Congrés intern. d’Anthrop. (Paris, 1889), pp. 405-450. 

Hervé, Georges i 
Les brachycéphales néolithiques. Revue de l’Ecole d’Anth. de Paris 
(1895), pp. 18-28. 

Hooton, Earnest A. 
The ancient inhabitants of the Canary Islands. Harvard African 
Studies, vol. viz, Cambridge, 1925. 

Hooton, Earnest A. 
The asymmetrical character of human evolution. Am. Jour. Phys. 
Anthrop. April-June, 1925, pp. 125-140. 

Hooton, Earnest A. 
On certain Eskimoid characters in Icelandic skulls. Am. Jour. Phys. 
Anthrop., vol. 1 (1918), pp. 53-76. 

Hrdlicka, Ales 
Physical Anthropology of the Lenapé. Bureau of Am. Ethnol., Bull. 62, 
Washington, 1916. 

Hrdlicka, Ales 
Anthropometry. Philadelphia, 1920. 

Lee, A., and Pearson, K. 
Data for the problem of evolution in man: VI. A first study of the 
correlation of the human skull. Philosophical Transactions, ser. A, 
vol. excvi (1901), pp. 225-264. 


Martin, R. 
Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. Jena, 1914. 


Noulet, J. B. 
Etude de ’Ombrive. Archives du Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de 
Toulouse, 1882. 


Pearson, Karl 
On the reconstruction of the stature of prehistoric races. Philosophi- 
cal Transactions, ser. A, vol. cxcir (1899), p. 196. 


Piette, Ed. 
Une sépulture dans l’assise 4 galets coloriés du Mas d’Azil. Bull. de 
la Soc. d’Anth. de Paris (1895), p. 485. 


Salmon, Philippe 
Dénombrement et types des cranes néolithiques en Gaule. Rev. 
mens. de |’Ecole d’Anthrop. de Paris, 1895. 


Sawtell, Ruth Otis, and Treat, Ida 
Primitive Hearths in the Pyrenees. New York, 1927. 


Scheidt, Walter 
Die eiszeitlichen Schidelfunde aus der Grossen Ofnet-Héhle und 
vom Kaufertsberg bei Nérdlingen. Miinchen, 1923. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 


Scheidt, Walter 
Der nacheiszeitliche Schadelfund vom Kaufertsberg bei Nérdlingen 
und die rassenkundliche Stellung der Ofnetbevélkerung. Anth. An- 
zeiger (Stuttgart, 1924), pp. 30-34. 


Schmidt, R. R. 
Die Diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands. Stuttgart, 1912. 


Testut, L. 
Recherches anthropologiques sur le squelette quaternaire de Chance- 
lade. Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthrop. de Lyons, vol. vit (1889), pp. 131- 
246. 

Treat, Ida Vaillant-Couturier, et Vaillant-Couturier, Paul 
La grotte Azilienne du ‘Trou Violet” & Montardit (Ariége). L’An- 
thropologie, vol. xxxvu (1928), pp. 217-248. 

Verneau, René 
L’Allee Couverte des Mureaux (Seine-et-Oise). L’Anthropologie, 
vol. 1 (1890), pp. 157-186. 

Verneau, René 
Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé).. Tome II, Fascicule I. 
Anthropologie (Monaco, 1906). 





PLATE 1 





Cranium of Montardit I, Norma frontalis and Norma occipitalis 





PLATE 2 





Cranium of Montardit I, Norma verticalis and Norma lateralis 


PLATE 3 





Maxilla of Montardit I 





PuaTE 4 





: Mandible of Montardit I 





PuaTE 5 





Right femur and right tibia of Montardit I, lateral and anterior views 





PLATE 6 





Right and left ulnae of Montardit I, anterior and lateral views 





PLATE 7 





Fourth lumbar vertebra of Montardit I 





PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI.—No. 5 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN 
PELVIS IN RELATION TO THE 
MECHANICS OF THE ERECT 
POSTURE 


BY 


EDWARD REYNOLDS 


THREE PLATES AND TEN ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1931 








PAPERS 


OF THE 


PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


Vou. XI.—No. 5 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN 
PELVIS IN RELATION TO THE 
MECHANICS OF THE ERECT 
POSTURE 


BY 


~ EDWARD REYNOLDS 


THREE PLATES AND TEN ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 
1931 


COPYRIGHT, 1931 

BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS 
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY = 

? 4 





. 
% 


PRINTED IN THE UNITED 8ST 
BY THE PLIMPTON PRESS + NORWOOD 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

IOI Et Me hg ee a Ba ke eee eee 255 
nM rr, Oe ee fe gay ae ew ake 255 
Pmememrres snd Cubes 6) 56 ce ws eee ee ee 256 
Ue r MEME re es eR ig ipa a ca es 256 
eh AVIC ek ek ee ee we 260 
eeeIMISVATACUCTISLICS, 9... we cc (oe we ee hw 260 
Peart O1 Cross Section 20.5.0. ek we ee ew 266 
PUEVEGOPMENT OF SPECIALIZATIONS . ... «+. ee sw ee 271 
Meme sreropoia late. kk kk ee ee ee oho 
Peer eh ose Of OUDDOL . som oe ce eee the eee 274 
SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE IscHIA AND PuBES .......... 276 
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE ERECT PosturE........ 278 
a rn pes IN ie A eet  iA  Caer ae 278 
URE etree ot Te a ee ete te 283 
ent aeiing Hadith. . ios. vs se ees ee et 285 
URE er he Gk oak ek eae ke 287 
err Teen ee EE et ee ee 288 
INE CME Ns sere 8 Ne ees ge lee esse 289 

BO Re PR Hi ee ga lins ote oe eh oe eels ee 290 

Se metas RM ARIE ahs ele og 2 ch wea ys cae eles es 290 

erry OTMOVIDOKCYS 5 2 ok ie 8 el be ee ee 291 

BE MAe Pre VIONKEYS* 0 0 ee es eee ee ee 294 

ner ere PEC 9.) che oe} ec seccas fe Jw ea 296 

fie arte e Eg coe ee eel ee ee eae He 296 

ah a OSL OS Sa ae ee a 303 
ES ee To ee ink eee ctel spies ete 305 

Te a eg) slice od. Wile va ee Ween ea ces 307 
MeN IN UE Reem gr Oe mtg dh plylaa velo s 310 

RI Rt age PGB fo ee aay diy ce le. eas 310 
eT er mg Vee eee wh lee es 328 
ete PE ey kb aor whe we we tele eee 8 330 
emt OR I rg My Gog So Net og! Sell epee 330 

NOOR Ny) eS ee Oey OETA ee! eae ee EET 331 


EERIE I tcl ee eo ew ve ee 334 





Die ON gee Hew ae GO nN. ie Fat 


10. 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES 


. A trained Cebus in its usual standing position 


. Slow motion photographs of gibbons at the Philadelphia Zoo- 


logical Garden 


. Photographs of chimpanzees-in the gardens of Madame Abreu 


in Havana 


FIGURES 


. Diagrammatic drawing of pelves showing specializations . . . 
. Diagrammatic presentations of iliac axes ......... 
» Diagrammatic drawings of ilia and ischia. .......-s 
Meetoeerec ioe 01 primate pelves . 2... 2 eee we te 
eer AS ANUDAIS 6. se eel we oe ee ew ek 


. Diagrammatic drawings of the pelves of Cebus, Macaque, the 


gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla... . 


. Diagrammatic drawing showing the axes of the pelvic arms in 


the gibbon, the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and in man... . 


. Tracing from photographs of a young gorilla in (1) a bipedal 


standing position, and (2) the same animal in a quadrupedal 
RM ae ee 


. Diagrammatic drawing showing the bilateral asymmetry in the 


pelves of the gibbon, the orang, the gorilla, and of man. . 


Diagrammatic drawing showing the shift in the centre of gravity 
in the erect posture and the quadrupedal ......... 


294 


302 


306 


262 
264 
268 
280 
284 


292 


299 


008 


313 





THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 
IN ITS RELATION TO THE MECHANICS 
OF THE ERECT POSTURE 


INTRODUCTION 


Few subjects in physical anthropology have excited more interest 
than the development of the specializations which enable man to 
maintain his erect posture and the bipedal activity by which he 
is distinguished from all other mammals. Among the many spe- 
clalizations which have a bearing upon this subject two are of 
predominant importance. Those of his very distinctive foot have 
been extensively studied, while the characters which distinguish 
his equally unique pelvis have received but little attention. The 
method by which these peculiarities have been developed, under 
the operation of the fundamental mechanical laws, and their 
functional relation to the mechanics of the erect posture will be 
discussed in this paper along the following lines: 


THESIS 


A study of the primitive characters in the mammalian pelvis 
and a description of the writer’s method of tracing the develop- 
ment of the various specializations which are necessary to the 
varying habits of the more highly specialized groups. 

A brief reference to the simple laws of balance in their bearing 
upon the feet as the base of support and upon the pelvis as the 
main factor in stabilizing the attitude. 

The quadrupedal position of the femur in its relation to the 
pelvic shape and architecture, contrasted with its position in erect 
man and its mechanical relation to his pelvis. 

The animals which make at least an occasional use of at least 
a partially erect posture, and which exhibit in their pelvic de- 
velopment transitional stages between the most generalized quad- 
rupeds and highly specialized man, are the marsupial kangaroos 
(Macropodidae); the edentate anteaters (Myrmecophagidae) ; 
many small animals, principally rodents, which have well devel- 
oped erect sitting habits; the bears (Ursidae), which are Car- 

255 


256 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


nivora; the lower Primates; and the anthropoid apes. The habits 
and skeletal development of each of these must be discussed in 
some detail. 

The human pelvis and the bipedal activities of man. 

The ilia of the ungulates and of Bradypus will be discussed 
In an appendix. 


LAW OF SQUARES AND CUBES 


A mechanical principle which should always be remembered is 
that if the shape and proportions of any material body remain 
the same, but its size varies, its strength increases as the square 
of any one dimension, while its weight increases as the cube. 

This law is of universal application, and applies not only to 
every structure of mechanical function, but to every part of such 
a structure; animate or inanimate. It applies then, not only to a 
complete animal, but to every individual bone and muscle in that 
animal. We shall readily see that it is of fundamental importance 
in every skeletal specialization which we encounter. 

Consider as an illustration the case of a simple and generalized 
mammalian species, which in the course of its evolution gradually 
increases in size. Suppose for a moment that in its increase from 
a total length of two inches to one of four inches it underwent 
no other change, and consider the consequences which would 
ensue. During this growth its length has been multiplied by two; 
its weight will have increased as the cube of two, and it will then 
weigh eight times as much; but the strength of its muscles will 
have increased merely as the square of two, and it will be only 
four times as strong.* 

It will then be endeavoring to move eight times its original 
weight by muscles only four times as strong. It is evident that 
it would fail in the competition of life. With no great further 
increase of size, it would indeed become incapable of motion. 

It might seem that the difficulty could be met by a greater and 
disproportionate increase in the size of the muscles, but this would 


1 A muscle is made up of many fusiform cells of a given size, arranged essentially 
side by side, and connected essentially end to end; each is capable of a given amount and 
of a given strength of contraction. The strength of a muscle is then proportionate to the 
number of cells arranged side by side in its cross section, i.e. to the square of its diameter, 
while its length, i.e. the number of cells which are connected end to end, determines only 
the length of its contraction. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 257 


at once result in a further and still more disastrous gain in weight. 
It is then evident that in the evolution of greater size an increase 
of muscular strength appropriate to the much greater increase 
of weight must be attained in some way which does not involve 
a further increase of weight. As a matter of fact, it is usually 
obtained by changes in the bones and muscular attachments that 
improve the leverages afforded to the muscles and so give them 
increased power without disproportionate increase of weight. 


CONSEQUENCES 


The strength of the bones which are to be moved must, moreover, 
be proportionate to the power of the muscles which are to move 
them, and here again, if the animal is to maintain its activity, the 
increased strength of bone must be obtained without a dispro- 
portionate increase of weight. This can only be obtained by 
improvements in their internal construction. 

As soon as the skeletons of the mammalian series are studied 
from a mechanical standpoint it is at once plain that this appar- 
ently difficult problem has been solved by the evolutionary forces 
in a manner which is of necessity in strict accordance with those 
fundamental mechanical laws, by the discovery of which, and 
in obedience to which, the human engineer has learned to carry 
on his work. 

The necessary increase of power has been provided without 
disproportionate increase of weight by the appearance of pro- 
cesses + which give to the muscles attached to them improved 
leverages which yield the required gains in power without any 
significant further increase in the size or weight of the muscles. 

Examples of such increase of power by improved leverage, in 
fact, appear on every hand as we follow the bones of the mam- 
malian series from the simpler to the more specialized groups. 

The increased strength of the bones which enables them to 
resist this greater power must also be obtained without undue 
increase in their weight. This is, in fact, afforded to them by 
improvements in their internal architecture, which are again in 
strict accordance with well-known and fundamental mechanical 
principles. 


1 Or other changes in the shape of the bones. 


258 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


It is a matter of common knowledge that a tube of given weight 
is stronger than a rod of the same weight and which contains the 
same amount of substance. The first change to be noticed in this 
study is the replacement of the simple rod construction of the 
most primitive bones by the tubular long bones of most mammals. 

It is well known that the strains and stresses imposed upon a 
rod are greatest at the surface and least at the center. Under the 
operation of evolutionary law, the tubular structure of the long 
bones has then resulted from hypertrophy at the surface and 
atrophy at the center. The process of gain in strength without 
increase of weight does not, however, stop here. The strength of a 
tube can, of course, be greatly increased by cross bracings within 
its lumen, and nothing would please the human engineer more 
than to lighten his tubular construction by carrying such cross 
bracing to its logical extreme, if this were not inhibited by the 
nature and cost of his materials and labor. The forces of evo- 
lution have proved quite able to carry this process to what appears 
to be at least a close approach to perfection. 

The arrangement of the spiculae of solid bone and of the can- 
cellated tissue which cross braces and supports them within the 
trochanteric angle of the femur is a beautiful instance of the 
accuracy with which this law produces just the arrangements 
which are indicated by mathematical computation for such an 
L-shaped supporting structure, and the resistance of the pelvis to 
great strains, in spite of its light weight, is another excellent 
example. 

The appearance of increased power without disproportionate 
gain in weight is not, however, merely a necessary element in the 
development of giantism, and as such, apparent in every portion 
of an animal whose species has increased in size. It is also an 
almost equally necessary element in the development of most, 
if not all specializations, and may therefore be present in marked 
degree in some one part only of an individual animal. 

In point of fact, whenever a given species has acquired spe- 
cialized habits, the conditions which give increase of muscu- 
lar power and strength of bone will be especially well developed 
in those parts of its body on which the specialized habits impose 
especial demands. 

1 Gray, 1898, Anatomy, p. 248. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 259 


Familiarity with these two mechanical advances will prove to 
be of importance to every step in this study of the development 
of the pelvis, and several of the corollaries which follow from 
it are also so important that it may perhaps be advantageous to 
enumerate them here, before proceeding to the detailed study of 
their results. 

Large and heavy species usually show any given specializations 
in higher degree than their relatives of similar habits but of lesser 
weight. 

Increased activity has the same effect as increased weight, be- 
cause a quick start against the inertia of a stationary body re- 
quires much more power than the maintenance of motion after 
it has been inaugurated, a fact familiar to everyone who has ever 
driven an automobile. 

Economy of weight at every point is an element of primary 
importance in the evolution of an active and efficient species. The 
great importance of this fact is seldom sufficiently appreciated. 

Since the disadvantages which result from increased weight 
under the law of squares and cubes can rarely be completely 
compensated, the smaller animals are usually the more active. 

With these mechanical principles well in mind, we may pro- 
ceed to the consideration of the primitive forms of pelvis from 
which we are to trace the development of the highly specialized 
girdle of erect bipedal man. 


THE PRIMITIVE PELVIS 


Some idea of the probable pelvis of the primitive ancestral mam- 
mals may be obtained by assembling the characters which are 
common to all mammalian pelves, and by eliminating those which 
are present only in groups which have become specialized in some 
given direction. 

Such a conception can then be checked by comparing the hypo- 
thetical pelvis so constructed with the least specialized pelves 
which can be found in each of the several mammalian orders. 

Figure 1 shows outlines drawn by camera lucida from such a 
group. It depicts a specimen from each of the mammalian 
orders with four exceptions; the Sirenia, Cetacea, Ungulata, and 
Chiroptera.* 

Each of these pelves is from a family or genus of generalized 
habits and structure, and was selected from among those groups 
as representing the species which showed the least degree of the 
specializations characteristic of the order. 

All of even these pelves show some degree of specialization, 
and at first sight one is impressed chiefly by their differences, but 
on analysis their striking similarity in fundamentals becomes 
apparent. 

Their somewhat close resemblance in general shape should 
be noticed before proceeding to a detailed discussion of their 
several parts. 


COMMON CHARACTERISTICS 


In all of them, the ilio-ischiatic length exceeds the bilateral 
width (as arule, by about two to one), while externally, the dorso- 
ventral depth at the acetabular level is always less than the 
greatest width. (See Table 1.) The cavity of the true pelvis is, 
however, in all these instances, pentagonal in shape and with the 
sagittal diameter greater than the transverse. (See Table 2.) 


1 The vestigial pelves of the Sirenia and Cetacea are not without interest in the re- 
construction of the primitive pelvis, but are omitted here, as having no direct bearing 
upon our special subject. The orders Ungulata and Chiroptera are highly specialized 
throughout, and contain no unspecialized or primitive pelves. Each of the other orders is 
represented. 


260 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 261 


TasLe 1. LENGTH AND BreADTH DIAMETERS AND INDICES OF PRIMITIVE 
PELVES 


THE LENGTH ALWAYS EXCEEDS THE BREADTH 


Average 
Length Breadth Index Index 
PPUDSSUS 2) ade cc y ccc ces 8.1 3.9 48.15 
10.5 5.4 51.43 49.79 
C2 TS Ie) 7.9 3.8 48.10 
iis 3.2 43.84 
78 3.4 43.59 45.18 
CO 9-8 a 6.4 oo 51.56 
6.3 3.3 52.38 51.97 
NOTTS Os a 13.4 Wa 82.84 
8.3 6.3 75.90 
5.0 3.9 78.00 78.91 
IVP GUE) cis eie snc eevee 10 3.9 52.00 
74 52 70.27 
vA 5.2 70.27 
. (ive 52 67.53 65.02 
[PS TO Dae eo 2.6 127 65.38 65.38 
lemur Mongos (1) ......... 4.8 (ee 64.00 64.00 


Many more specimens of these pelves were studied, but for the purposes 
of this and the two succeeding tables the few which were readily at hand 
were thought sufficient, since the indices are so very distinctive. 


TABLE 2. INTERNAL DEPTH-BREADTH DIAMETERS AND INDICES OF 
PRIMITIVE PELVES 


Average 
Sagittal Transverse Index Index 
PE OIOOSISIN 2) sh cccc ss cces ve. 4.0 2.4 60.00 
he 3.5 61.40 60.70 
J OL 4.7 2.6 5D.a2 
3.5 23 62.86 
4.7 2.6 Dae, 57.83 
Sate es Seek sa ccs seas 3.0 23 76.67 
3.0 2.3 76.67 76.67 
PIO UT, so nici acces veces "i! 45 63.38 
apy Bye 69.81 
oo 25 78.12 70.44 
RATIO ACS) es ade vse» « 41 2.3 56.10 
4.0 at 52.50 
3.9 a | 53.85 
4.4 Tip 50.00 53.11 
IA Na gre eu eA ee ke ba’ 1.6 . 09 56.25 56.25 


Penni wiongos (1) 52.0... 3% 3.9 3.0 7.69 76.90 


262 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 








yiil 


vil 


vi 


FIGURE 1 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 263 


FIGURE 1 


These pelves have been reduced or enlarged to an approximately 
uniform size to facilitate comparison. In all, the dotted lines A or B 
indicate the position at which the adjoining cross section of the ilium 
was taken. J is opposite the internal surface, D-l, the dorso-lateral, 
V-l, the ventro-lateral. 


All have, in general, the primitive characters enumerated in the 
text, but all show some specializations, as noted below. 


I, ProkcHipNA has a very large pectineal process (P), which is present, 
in varying shapes, in all the Monotremata; a metischial process (M), 
and a prominent pubis. The quadrupedal plate extends into the 
shank and alters the otherwise equilateral triangularity of the cross 
section. 


II and III. Dmetputs has a slight metischial curve and some free 
ilium. It is as a whole very primitive. Note its very primitive cross 
section. 


IV. Geneva is one of the least specialized representatives of a very 
highly specialized order. 


V. Manis has an edentate pubis, and a long metischial process. 


VI. Marmora. The single line between the anterior spines represents 
the vestigial, primitive, external edge; the double line, the false 
anthropoidal plate. In the cross sections A and B, e is the vestigial 
external edge, f, the false plate. The true edge is less vestigial than 
in most rodential pelves. The free ilia are strongly bent, laterally 
outwards. 


VII. Tupata. The resemblances in general shape and cross section 
between this and the lemur are interesting. 


VIII. Lemur Moncos. The unusually ventral situation of the anthro- 
poidal plate is a primate character. 


[Figure 1] 


264 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


114 





11 


FIGURE 2 








IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 265 


FIGURE 2 


In these figures the heavy lines which are blocked at the ends 
represent the three pelvic arms, those with circled ends the femur, 
and the dotted lines the action of the extensor and flexor muscles. 
It must be understood that these dotted lines make no pretense of 
representing an accurate determination of the resultants of these 
muscles, which, indeed, it would probably be impossible to obtain. 


The figures are, in fact, merely diagrammatic presentations of the 
conditions which may convey their meaning more clearly and easily 
than any verbal description. The iliac axes are each placed in an ap- 
proximation to their usual position in a standing attitude. 


I. Tur QuaApRuPEDAL. The proportions are taken from a fox (Vulpes 
fulva), an animal which is highly specialized for quadrupedal speed 
and endurance. It can readily be seen that with any great extension 
of the femur the muscles would lose power very rapidly. 


Il. THe AntTuHRoporpAL. The proportions are taken from a chimpan- 
zee. It will be observed that the bend in the iliac axis throws the 
ischial axis so well backward that the muscles act to advantage, even 
though the femur is much more extended in relation to the ilium 
(and spine). 


III. Man. a, the region of the posterior superior spine; b, the tu- 
berosity of the ilium; c, the tuberosity of the ischium; d, the pubis. 

The dorsal curvature of the iliac axis brings it, essentially through- 
out its length, into line with the much elongated and strengthened 
pubic arm. It also throws the ischiatic axis into line with the newly 
developed tubero-acetabular line of strength. The muscles act to full 
advantage with both the femur and the trunk fully extended and 
erect. The same may be said of the lateral leverages, which, to avoid 
complexity, are not figured. 

The leverages are, in fact, mechanically equivalent to those which 
_would be exerted by a prolongation of the muscular resultants to a 
single plane (H, £), at right angles to the femur and trunk. 


[Figure 2] 


266 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


These are primitive proportions which persist in probably a ma- 
jority of the whole class, but which are in marked contrast to the 
human specializations.* 

Another very important characteristic of the general shape of 
all unspecialized mammalian pelves is that the ilio-ischiatic axis 
is nearly straight. 

In detail: in all unspecialized mammalian pelves the ilium is 
an approximately straight, long bone, extending from the acetabu- 
lum to a sacro-iliac joint at, or nearly at, its distal extremity, 
1e. with but little free ilium. In all of them, the body of the 
ischium from the acetabulum to the tuberosity is also a long bone, 
the axis of which continues the line of the iliac axis either exactly, 
or, as in most cases, at a slight dorsally-open angle. 

The straight ilio-ischiatic axis and the femur form an inclined T 
in all quadrupeds of generalized structure (Figure 2), a fact 
which will become of much importance as the argument pro- 
eresses, since it furnishes a key to an understanding of some of 
the most important modifications of the human pelvis. 

In all mammalian pelves, the acetabular ramus of the pubes 
leaves the acetabulum at somewhat more than a right angle with 
the iliac axis, and extends thence to its junction with its fellow 
in the median line. This pubic acetabular arm is, moreover, with 
few exceptions, supported and converted into a bracket, as it 
were, by the conjunction of the descending ramus with the ascend- 
ing ramus of the ischium. 

A conception of the primitive pelvis as consisting, from a 
mechanical standpoint and when viewed from the norma lateralis, 
of an avetabulum, from which three essentially straight arms of 
bone project as levers, seems to the writer an important starting 
point for the study of pelvic evolution, and it will be so used in 
this paper. 


TRIANGULARITY OF CROSS SECTION 


The cross sections of the illum are triangular throughout its 
length in all mammalian pelves of primitive type.? See Figures 1 
and 2. In most of them this is equally true of the ischium from 


1 Note that they are present in Lemur Mongos, representing the primitive Primates, as 
in all the other representatives of the primitive. 
2 See also, Weidenreich, 1918, Anat. Anz., p. 497. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE. 267 


the acetabulum to the tuberosity. In the Primates, in many 
Rodentia, in some Insectivora, and in occasional families through- 
out the class, the same is true of the pubic arm. 

This triangularity of the cross sections is, moreover, detectable, 
at least in the acetabular ends of the ilium and ischium, in every 
mammalian pelvis.* 

In all the more primitive pelves, such as are illustrated in Fig- 
ure 1, the ilia and ischia plainly present for description three 
surfaces, the internal, the dorso-lateral, and the ventro-lateral; 
and three edges, the external, the dorsal and the ventral: These 
primitive edges and surfaces are, moreover, present in some de- 
gree, In every mammalian pelvis (Figure 3), and the process of 
tracing them out into the specializations furnishes an important - 
key to the evolution of all their pelvic characters.” 

In the most highly specialized pelves, as, for instance, in those 
of the Carnivora, of the Artiodactyla, and of man, the existence 
of these three edges is not always at once apparent. The writer 
has so far, however, found no single character which could not 
be traced back to the primitive, through intermediary stages, 
by the use of the conception that all individual specializations of 
the pelvis have been produced by alterations in the proportions 
of the triangular cross sections, or by the extension of plates or 
isolated processes from one or the other of these three primitive 
edges, often, however, in combination with alterations in the 
relative size, directions, and proportions of the three acetabular 
arms. This becomes very apparent as the bones are studied in 
quantity, but can only be shown here by quoting illustrative 
instances. 

It must be remembered that an increased projection of any 
one of the three primitive edges involves, of necessity, an increase 
in the extent, and usually an alteration of the shape, of both the 
adjacent surfaces. 

In order. to avail ourselves of the full value of this concept, 
we must, moreover, go one step further in our study of the 
primitive. 

In the pelves of the Prototheria, in those of the Metatheria of 


1 So far, at least, as the writer’s observation of the large osteological collection of the 
Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology warrants the statement. 

2 See also Strauss, 1929, Studies on Primate Ilia. This article also contains a very full 
bibliography of the pelvis. 


268 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


I TL 

D2 D-L 

ee v-2 MS 
val Iv 





FIGURE 3 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 269 


FIGURE 3 


Throughout this figure the odd numbers represent lead strip trac- 
ings of the ilia, the even, those of the ischia, both taken as near to 
the acetabula as possible.t 7, internal surface; D-l, dorso-lateral; 
V-l, ventro-lateral. 


I and II. Zaarossus (the spiny anteater). The Prototheria, though 
the most primitive of mammals, are all highly specialized for swim- 
ming or digging, hence their pelves all show developments of exten- 
sive processes from the dorsal edges of their ilia and ischia. 


III and IV. Dwetruis (opossum) is a slow moving marsupial with 
a very primitive pelvis. 


V and VI. Taxmea (badger) is a carnivore with a but slightly spe- 
cialized pelvis. 


VII and VIII. Antmocapra (prong horn antelope). It is an ungulate 
characteristic that in them the spine of the ischium is represented by 
a long thin plate which extends over the entire length of both the 
ischial and iliac shanks, which is here seen extending dorsally. 


IX and X. CHIMPANZEE. In the chimp and in the very similar gorilla 
(XI and XII) the essential triangularity of both shanks is plainly 
apparent in spite of the high degree of specialization of their pelves. 


XIII and XIV. Man. Both the shanks bear a general resemblance to 
those of the gorilla and chimp, but the section of the human ilium 
is here taken across the blade instead of from the shank, in order to 
show that even in that most highly specialized portion of a special- 
ized pelvis the triangularity is clearly apparent if it is realized that 
the blade (the anthropoidal plate) is merely a process developed 
from the lateral edge. It must be noted that for economy of space 
this iliac section has been rotated from the others and should be 
viewed from the side, i.e. with the internal face (2) horizontal. 


1 Except in the human ilium. 


[Figure 3] 


270 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


generalized habits and structures, and in some of the most gen- 
eralized of the Eutheria, the cross sections of the ilia and ischia 
are not only triangular, but are, at least approximately, equilat- 
erally triangular.* 


TABLE 3. WIDTHS OF SURFACES OF THE ILIAC SHANKS IN 
PRIMITIVE PELVEs 2 


Ventro- Dorso- 
lateral lateral Internal 
Aaglossis C2) wens oe eee 1.2 le 18 
1.1 Lt 13 
Didelphis (3) uc sistent eee 0.6 0.6 } 0.7 
0.5 0.5 0.7 
0.6 0.6 0.8 
Macropuss (2))ge.c ea tunea eee 2A 2.4 23 
28 3.0 2.9 
Marmots, (4). cake. eee 0.8 0.8 0.8 
0.8 0.8 0.8 
0.8 0.9 0.8 
0.8 0.9 0.8 
Pern CL) ec erare eee ee eee 0.8 0.11 0.8 


If we assume provisionally that this equilateral triangularity 
is the primitive condition, we shall find that specialization by 
extension of any one of the three primitive edges has an individual 
significance of its own, both functionally and in systematic 
zoology, at least among the Mammalia. ~ 


1 This is true also in not a few highly specialized groups, though it is there limited, 
as a rule, to the acetabular ends only. 
2 Here again many more specimens have been studied. 


DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZATIONS 


THE writer not only believes that all pelvic specializations can 
be interpreted in this way, but also that this method of tracing 
out and classifying them, by following the successive stages of 
their development from one or the other of the three primitive 
edges, is not merely simple and practically successful, but that 
it is also a natural and fundamentally correct method. This is 
because it is evidently in accord with mechanical law. 

If the problem of fitting to a shaft a socket which is to receive 
stresses in three directions is treated as an engineering question, 
it will be found that the lightest and most efficient method is to 
sustain the edges of the socket by buttresses, and to stiffen the 
shaft against the lateral stresses by extending the buttresses along 
it. This, in itself, creates triangularity of cross section and is just 
what nature does in the primitive ilium,' e.g. Didelphis (Figure 1).. 

Again, if a power-producing structure is to be installed at some 
point along the shaft, it would be natural to install it on a strut 
derived from one of the edges, in order to increase its leverage, 
precisely as is done in bone by nature, and, in each instance, on the 
edge which is best situated to direct the power-producing element, 
e.g. the attachment of the erector spinae muscles to the long 
spinous processes of the vertebrae, perhaps best seen in the 
ungulates, in whom powerful extension of the spine is essential 
to the speed on which their lives depend. 

This, then, seems to afford a reason for the success of this 
method of study. This subject is, however, a large one, and no 
extended discussion of variations in other directions than towards 
the use of the erect posture is in any sense germane to the purpose 
of this paper. A few instances of similar pelvic specializations 
may, however, be mentioned here, as illustrations of the general 
subject. 

It is, for instance, noticeable that the development of speed 
and activity in quadrupedal locomotion tends typically to the 
acquisition of ilia which are extended dorso-ventrally into flat- 
tened blades by plates developed from the primitive dorsal, or 
dorsal and ventral edges. These, in the most typical instances 


1 In the case of the heavier and more specialized animals, the shape is somewhat 
modified by the more advanced internal architecture of the bone. 


271 


272 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


indeed, occupy very nearly parallel dorso-ventral planes, as in the 
lion (Felis leo), in Figure 4, vu. In fact, in many quadrupedal 
groups, as, for instance, among others, in the heavier Carnivora, 
and in the edentate armadillos (Dasypodidae), even the shank 
of the ilium also has become a flattened beam, with its breadth 
extending dorso-ventrally.t This is evidently an adaptation to 
the direction of the thrust received from the femur in the quad- 
rupedal attitude. 

As an illustration of another specialization see the mule deer 
(Odocoileus hermionus), Figure 4, v1, which shows a strongly 
marked example of a plate to be referred to hereafter as the 
quadrupedal plate. This is developed to a greater or less degree 
in most quadrupeds from the primitive dorsal edge at the level 
of the sacro-iliac articulation. The value of this plate is evidently 
that it furnishes to the quadrupeds an opportunity for a dorso- 
ventrally directed extension of the weight bearing ilio-sacral 
articulation. It is largest in those of great weight or activity and 
as it is quadrupedal, it disappears or is decreased in the Simiidae 
and man. 

The development of a metischial (or dorsally directed) process 
from the primitive dorsal edge of the ischium, as in Manis (Fig- 
ure 1), or very prominently in Ornithorhynchus (unfigured), is 
another instance. This gives power to the hamstring muscles in 
the extension of the femur. It is common in diggers, swimmers, 
and jumpers. 

Many other instances of specializations derived from the primi- 
tive ventral and dorsal edges might be quoted, but they have no 
direct bearing upon the development of the erect posture, which 
is especially associated with extensions of the external primitive 
edge of the ilium, in combination with changes in the shape and 
proportions of the sacrum and of the pubic and ischiatic acetabu- 
lar arms. The writer hopes that the truth and force of this state- 
ment will become apparent as the argument develops. 

1 The methods by which this shape is produced are, however, different in the differ- 
ent orders. In the armadillos it is produced by an extension from the ventral, but in the 


Carnivora, from the dorsal edge. In the latter, it is, in its varying degrees, a strong 
ordinal characteristic. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 273 


THE ANTHROPOIDAL PLATE 


In every case that has been observed, the adoption of any con- 
siderable use of the erect attitude by an animal of any sort is 
attended by the appearance of a plate developed from the primi- 
tive external edge of the ilium and, consequently, extended lat- 
erally. The degree to which this plate, which for convenience will 
be referred to hereafter as the anthropoidal plate, is developed 
is, moreover, always correlated with the degree to which an erect 
attitude of the trunk has been perfected and adopted by the given 
group (family, genus, or species). 

Even animals which have only an erect sitting habit show 
some extra development of the primitive external edge, while in 
the few animals in which the use of an erect attitude has become a 
frequent and important life habit, the extension of the primitive 
external edge, and consequently of the dorso-lateral and ventro- 
lateral surfaces, results in the formation of much extended iliac 
blades which project laterally or transversely in very nearly the 
same plane with each other (Figures 4, vu; and 6). It will be 
seen later that the development of this plate gives greatly im- 
proved leverages to the muscles which erect the body, and also 
affords to many of them an opportunity for increased power by 
enlarging their sites of origin. 

The anthropoidal plate can be traced and recognized, even in 
its most specialized forms, by the fact that the external primitive 
edge from which it is developed always begins in the anterior 
inferior spine (present in all mammalian pelves), and extends 
continuously to its end at the crest, where the anterior superior 
spine is usually recognizable as its termination. 

The development of the anthropoidal plate in the ilium is, then, 
the most prominent and striking of the localized specializations 
which we shall come to recognize as characteristics of the erect 
posture in any form. The changes in the sacrum, ischium, and 
pubes, which are to be described later, are chiefly related to the 
appearance of an erect, alternate, bipedal progression, and govern 
the increased extension of the femur, which in one degree or 
another is essential to all such erect locomotion. 


274 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


BALANCE AND BASE OF SUPPORT 


The discussion of these specializations, the study of their 
mechanical significance, and of its influence on their development, 
is our immediate subject. Their necessity to the erect position can 
hardly be made fully comprehensible, however, without some 
preliminary consideration of the principles of balance as applied 
to the animal body in that position. In this connection we must 
also recognize not only the pelvis and the pelvic muscles, which 
are the chief agents in effecting and maintaining the erect balance, 
but also the equally important base of support on which the whole 
structure rests. In the erect sitting position this consists of the 
buttocks and feet, in the erect standing position, of the feet only. 

No digitigrade animal makes any essential or habitual use of 
an erect bipedal position. The extent of base afforded by plantar 
feet 1s essential to this posture.? 

In general, the degree of stability of any erect object is de- 
termined by the proportion between the diameters of its base of 
support and the height of its center of gravity.’ 

The animate body has, however, two advantages which give it 
far more chance of maintaining an erect standing position than 
those of an inanimate object with the same height of center and 
diameter of the base of support. The first of these is that it can, 
by movements of its trunk, adjust its center of gravity to the 
position of its base in any variations of its attitude, and the sec- 
ond, that it can at any moment extend that base in any desired 
direction by shifting the position of a foot. 

Since both of these two adjustments are, however, executed by 
muscles which originate from the pelvis, the degree of activity 
and power in executing such movements which any given animal 
possesses 1s plainly dependent upon the mechanical advantages 
which are afforded to its muscles by the shape and proportions 
of its pelvis. | 

1 Certain digitigrades, however, make frequent use of an erect sitting or standing 
position upon a tripodal base composed either of the two hind feet and haunches, or of the 
hind feet and a powerful tail. Since both of these postures involve some degree of pelvic 
specialization, they are of considerable interest, and must be studied as showing transi- 
tional stages towards the more complete specializations. 

2 In all studies of balance the whole weight of the object should, of course, be con- 


sidered as concentrated at the center of gravity and, equally of course, a perpendicular 
dropped from that center must remain within the area of the base, or the object falls. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 275 


As has been said, the most striking and the most important of 
the pelvic modifications which are related to the erect posture 
is the development of the anthropoidal plate, since it is present 
in all degrees of the assumption of this habit. 

In maintaining the balance of the erect trunk upon the pelvis, 
and consequently upon the base, the antero-posterior (i.e. dorso- 
ventral) and the lateral motions are plainly of equal importance. 

Since in the erect postures of all animals (from the erect 
sitting animals to man) the center of gravity of the trunk is 
always anterior (i.e. ventral) to the acetabulum, the maintenance 
of antero-posterior balance is mainly governed by the erector 
spinae group of muscles. This group is not greatly affected by the 
development of the anthropoidal plate, but it is so important and 
powerful an element in quadrupedal progression that it is prob- 
ably always sufficient for its part in the erection of the body, if 
that is needed. In man and the anthropoids it is, however, con- 
siderably widened and, therefore, increased in size by an exten- 
sion of its lateral elements along the inner lip of the iliac crest.* 
The increased size of the glutei which follows the development 
of the anthropoidal plate is also an aid to the erection of the 
trunk in even the sitting animal, since even in them these muscles 
contribute to the fixation of the pelvis from which the action of 
the spinal muscles originate. | 

The existence of the anthropoidal plate is all-important to the 
equally important matter of lateral balance of the body. The 
muscles which govern lateral flexion and extension all take origin 
from the iliac crest, and both their size and their mechanical 
advantage in leverage are greatly increased by the lateral exten- 
sion of that crest which is due to the presence, in all of them, of 
the anthropoidal plate. 

As we review the mammals it will be found, as has already 
been said, that the development of the anthropoidal plate pro- 
ceeds pari passu with the degree of adoption of an erect habit. 

1 Keith, 1923, Posture of Man, p. 451. 


SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE ISCHIA AND PUBES 


FREQUENT use of even a bipedal standing position by any animal 
may sometimes involve some additional pelvic specializations, 
which increase in prominence and complexity with the adoption 
of bipedal progression. These occur in the ischia and pubes. They 
are chiefly related to a changed position of the femur which favors 
the erect posture. Most such animals, however, still retain a quad- 
rupedal gait, and the degree to which the bipedal habit modifies 
the pelvis is, of course, dependent upon the frequency and im- 
portance of the use of this posture to the individual animal, as 
compared with his habitual quadrupedal gait. 

Comprehension of the relation between these pelvic specializa- 
tions and extension of the femur is essential to an understanding 
of the erect bipedal gait, and its lesser degrees must be dis- 
cussed here. 

In animals adapted to the quadrupedal attitude only, the 
median position of the femur, its position when it is in least 
active use, 1.e. when the animal is standing at ease, is not far 
from a right angle with the ilio-ischiatic axis, or perhaps usually 
slightly more flexed. In this position the attachment of the muscles 
to the straight ilio-ischiatic axis furnishes them with admirable 
leverages for action upon the femur so long as its motion is 
restricted to an arc of moderate extent upon either side of this 
position (Figure 2, 1). A little consideration of the figure will 
show, however, that in a position of extension of the femur the 
pelvic leverages would be so decreased that none of the muscles 
arising from the straight ilio-ischiatic axis would be in a position 
to exert any effective traction upon it. 

The femur of quadrupeds of generalized habits and structure 
is rarely carried into really great, and never into extreme exten- 
sion; indeed, in most quadrupeds its are of motion is probably 
much less wide than we are apt to think, most of the extension 
of the limb as a whole being in reality obtained from its lower 
articulations. | 

In certain quadrupeds of specialized habits we do, however, 
see some slight approach to specialization towards the use of the 
femur in extension. This occurs in fossorial animals and in those 

276 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 277 


which are great leapers. Diggers usually excavate the dirt with 
their fore paws and kick it far behind them with their hind limbs, 
and all leapers must make a powerful effort with their hind limbs 
after their body is directed upwards; both are naturally aided 
by somewhat greater extensions of the femora than are necessary 
in their ordinary terrestrial progression. These animals always 
show some metischial development and some increased ventral 
projection of the pubis. Consult the shapes of the ischia and pubes 
in Proechidna (Figure 1), in Odocoileus (Figure 4), and in Leo 
(Figure 4). These metischial and pubic changes are interesting 
as instances of a slight specialization towards a more than 
quadrupedal extension of the femur, which occurs in perhaps 
a more decided form in certain bears (Ursidae), and which may 
be regarded as an intermediate stage between the quadrupedal 
form and the developments of the lower pelvis which are peculiar 
to the Simiidae and man. 


STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE ERECT 
POSTURE 


THE several stages in the development of the erect posture 
which appear in the mammalian series may be defined as an erect 
sitting posture from a tripodal base consisting of the hind feet 
and the buttocks; a standing posture upon a tripodal base com- 
posed of the hind feet and tail; 7+ an erect standing position upon 
plantar feet without bipedal progression; erect, alternate, bipedal 
forward locomotion, such as occurs, for example, in the anthro- 
poid apes and in some bears; and the more complete bipedal 
activity which belongs to man alone (see p. 310). Each of these 
degrees of erectness has its characteristic degree of pelvic 
specialization. 

Instances of partial use of the erect habit occur, as has been 
said, in some species among the Marsupiala, the Edentata, the 
Carnivora, the Rodentia, and in many Primates. Each of these 
instances must now be discussed in some detail in support of the 
theories which have been outlined, and as transitional stages 
towards the fuller specialization which exists in man. 


THE KANGAROO 


The pelves of the subclass Metatheria as a whole are primitive, 
but are interesting from the very diverse specializations which 
occur among them. The group has, of course, developed inde- 
pendently, and in its Australian habitat contains animals of quite 
varied habits. The pelves of its members often parallel those of 
the Eutheria of similar habit to a very curious degree, for in- 
stance, that of Sarcophilus, a highly predatory animal, has ilia 
which, though developed by a different method, closely imitate 
in shape and appearance the main characteristics of those of 
the Carnivora. 

The Macropodidae (the Kangaroos and Wallabies), the only 
members of the group which make any use of even a partially 
erect attitude, are closely alike, and, for our purpose, may be 
described as one. When grazing, or in slow motion, they have an 
awkward but strictly quadrupedal gait. When in rapid motion 


1 Neither of these bases permit any progression. 


278 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 219 


they are bipedal, and appear to be wholly, or almost wholly 
digitigrade. They then progress by a series of hops or leaps, 
in which the hind limbs are used simultaneously. In this gait 
they evidently maintain their balance, in spite of their digiti- 
grade base of support, by availing themselves of the inertia of 
motion and by an adaptation of the successive positions of their 
feet to its guidance.* 

The effect of the inertia of motion in holding the progress of 
such a body to a straight line is, moreover, just as valuable in 
preventing vertical variation downward or upward. This is a very 
important mechanical principle which should not be forgotten 
in considering the gaits of the various animals which are to be 
studied. 

When at rest, and especially when on the lookout for enemies, 
they bring both their long tarsi and their powerful tails to the 
eround, and thus obtain a very extensive base of support by a 
combination of the plantar and tripodal methods. In this position 
the body is erect, and the burden of its weight is well distributed 
between the feet and tail. 

The pelvis (Figure 4) is but moderately modified from the 
primitive. The ilio-ischiatic axis is straight and thoroughly quad- 
rupedal when viewed from the norma lateralis; but the free ilia 
extend a long way above the synchondrosis and are widely bent, 
laterally outward. The anthropoidal plate is developed in the 
smaller species to about the prominence and shape which is func- 
tionally present in those of the rodents which have a well 
developed sitting habit (Marmota marmota, Figure 1, v1), and 
in the very heavy Macropus giganteus to a somewhat greater 
degree. 

The ischia have a moderate metischial (i.e. dorsal) extension, 
and the pubes are ventrally prominent. The symphysis is long. 

It would seem at first sight that this pelvis showed an insuf- 
ficient degree of pelvic development to correspond to such habits 
in so heavy an animal as the giant kangaroo, and that a doubt 


1 Any body in motion has a tendency to follow a straight line unless its path is dis- 
turbed by some other force. This inertia of motion increases with the weight of the mov- 
ing body and with the rapidity of its motion. With a heavy animal in rapid motion it 
becomes an important factor, making the maintenance of balance much easier and con- 
siderably lessening the effort required from the muscles in maintaining straightforward 
progression. This is very noticeable in the human use of the bicycle. Compare its in- 
stability when moving slowly with its security of balance when at high speed. 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


280 


TITA 


b HYMNS 


TTA 





IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 
FIGURE 4 


These pelves have been reduced or enlarged to an approximately 
uniform size to facilitate comparison. In all, the dotted lines A or B 
indicate the position at which the adjoining cross section of the 
ilium was taken. J is opposite the internal surface, D-l, the dorso- 
lateral, V-l, the ventro-lateral. 


I. THE GIANT KANGAROO (Macropus giganteus). The leaping char- 
acters are strongly developed but are best seen in a lateral view. It 
is shown here in illustration of the first degree of development of the 
anthropoidal plate, A, and of the lateral bend of the long free ilia. 


II. CycLorura DIDACTYLUS. 


III. THe GREAT ANTEATER (Myrmecophaga jubata). 

Both these animals have developed extensive anthropoidal plates 
in response to their frequent and vitally necessary habit of lateral 
and antero-posterior swaying movements of the trunk in an erect 
posture, but their retention of the weak edentate pubis shows beauti- 
fully the unimportance of the pubic arm to the maintenance of an 
erect position, so long as bipedal locomotion is not attempted. 


IV. Bradypus tridactylus. See Appendix. 


V. and VI. Tue mute peer (Odocoileus hermionus). Another highly 
specialized quadruped with a quadrupedal cross section of the shank, 
but with some degree of the widely spread iliac blades which are an 
ungulate characteristic (see Appendix). Note the large quadrupedal 
plate, g. Note also the long, metischially directed ischiatic axis and 
the strong pubis, which respectively aid in the extension and recovery 
of the femur in the leap. 


VII. Feuis teo. The pelvis of a highly specialized quadruped. Note 
the long straight ilio-ischiatic axis, the dorso-ventrally directed cross 
section and the similar direction of the blades. Note also the added 
characters of the leapers, the very long ischium (not in this instance 
metischially curved), and the ventrally projecting pubis. 


VIII. Ursus (species unidentified). The small but fairly well de- 
veloped and laterally widely spread anthropoid plates, the large metis- 
chial and parischial processes, and the very strong and prominent 
pubes are somewhat imperfect adaptations to erect, bipedal progres- 
sion, especially in so heavy an animal. They are, however, evidently 
sufficient for its very moderate degree of this habit. 


It is noteworthy that the bears are unique among quadrupeds in 
combining these three pelvic characters with plantar feet, and that 
they, alone, make even an occasional natural and untaught use of 
an alternate, bipedal, walking gait. 


The cross section shows the combination of a quadrupedal (Q) 
and an anthropoidal (A) plate which is again appropriate to their 


habits. 
[Figure 4] 


281 


282 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


of the importance of the anthropoidal plate in particular was 
thereby created. This apparent discrepancy is, however, explained 
by the peculiar balance of the kangaroo, which is easily observed 
in any zoological garden. Both when in bipedal motion, and 
during the very brief moments when it is at rest in a bipedal posi- 
tion, the balance of the kangaroo’s trunk upon its hind legs is 
very like that of most birds. The short femur is held very rigidly 
in a flexed position at the sides of the abdomen; the heavy tail is 
extended as an important counterweight; the center of gravity 
is nearly above the knee joint, and balance is chiefly maintained 
by the muscles which control the knee. The kangaroo is, in fact, 
a much less erect animal than is commonly supposed, an occa- 
sional use of the erect sitting position from a tripodal base being 
really the only degree of erectness to which it attains, and even 
when the tail is in contact with the ground and the base is tripodal, 
the same quadrupedal position of the femur is maintained. 

When in the erect sitting position, the animal is, however, 
capable of making considerable swaying motions of the body 
without carrying its center of gravity outside its wide tripodal 
base of support. In these motions the pelvio-corporeal group of 
muscles is subjected to an increased functional demand and an 
evolution of improved leverages for their action does become 
advantageous. The erector spinae group is already powerful and 
is continued without interruption into the heavy tail. No change 
is needed to permit the extension of the spine, but since the 
muscles which govern the lateral flexions arise largely from the 
iliac crest, the advantage of more lateral situations for their 
origins is at once apparent. This is given to them by the wide 
lateral curve in the free ilia, and is probably very necessary to the 
lateral swaying motions. 

On analysis the ilia then prove to be modified to about the 
degree which would be expected from the animal’s habits. 

The changes in the ischia and pubes about correspond to those 
which are present in the pelves of the other leaping quadrupeds 
and are evidently correlated with the animal’s bipedal hopping 
habit when at speed. 

It will be noted later that in the lower Primates also, a hopping 
or leaping gait, in which the hind legs are used simultaneously, 
requires extremely little modification of the pelvis, the reason 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 283 


being, undoubtedly, that given above; that it requires but little 
effort from the muscles of the trunk, the balance being maintained 
mainly by management of the inertia of motion. 


THE ANTEATER 


In the order Edentata the sacrum, ischia, and pubes are con- 
siderably specialized in a manner which is distinctive of the 
Edentata, and of them only. The ilia are, on the other hand, very 
primitive except among the anteaters? (Myrmecophagidae). 
They, the only members of the order which make any use of an 
erect attitude, have, in accordance with their habits, developed 
fairly wide iliac blades from the external primitive edge. 

The small anteaters, of which the smallest, Cyclura didactylus 
(Figure 4, 11), may serve as a good example, are arboreal. Their 
tails are long, with powerful flexor muscles, the action of which 
is increased by the existence of chevron bones opposite the bodies 
of the vertebrae. Cyclura has peculiar, but very efficient, grasping 
feet, especially well developed on the hind limbs. It hves among 
the small branches near the tops of high trees. It has a habit of 
grasping a branch with its hind feet, another with its prehensile 
tail, and upon the extensive tripodal base so obtained not only 
erects its body, but bows and sways to and fro, apparently for 
amusement. It probably often pursues the ants upon which it 
feeds by the same motion.® It is of about the size of a very large 
rat, and is very lightly built, but with this erect feeding habit 
it has developed an anthropoidal plate which is more complete 
than that of any animal outside its own family, except those of 
the anthropoid apes (Simidae). The remainder of its pelvis is, 
like those of all the other anteaters, unmodified from the peculiar 
edentate type; the reason being, of course, that the position of 
its thighs is quadrupedal, even when it is in the erect posture, 
and that its locomotion is always quadrupedal. 

The great anteater, or ant-bear (Myrmecophaga jubata), is 
a large and heavy terrestrial animal (Figure 5). Its locomotion is 


1 The ischia and sacrum are long and firmly united, while the pubis is usually absent 
or ligamentous. 

2 See Appendix, however, for the pelves of Bradypus and the extinct ground sloths. 

8 Cyclura is a very delicate animal which does not survive removal from the tropics, 
but is easily kept alive in captivity for short periods there. 


284 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


wholly quadrupedal. Its hind legs are long, its fore legs short. 
It walks upon the outer surface of the long claws of its front 
feet, but has a well developed plantar tread with the hind legs. 
It feeds mainly, if not wholly, upon termites, whose elevated 
nests it tears open with the powerful claws of its fore feet. These 














| ij 
NNN 








<<a iz 
SSS 
ESS 






ahh 
alts 
1 


ie 





FIGURE 5 


MYRMECOPHAGA JUBATA. At the moment of this 
picture the tail with its heavy load of hair was not 
in use as a counter weight. 


claws are also its only weapons of defense. When feeding or de- 
fending itself it often adopts a very thoroughly bipedal attitude 
upon its plantar hind feet. Its long and heavy tail is not applied 
to the ground, but is usually elevated and extended as a counter- 
weight. In this attitude it rips open the termite nests, pursues the 
escaping termites with its tongue, and is said to be capable of 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 285 


very powerful sweeping blows with its fore claws when attacked 
by an enemy. Myrmecophaga is a frequent inhabitant of the 
z008, and althotigh it is not fed on ants there, it not infrequently 
adopts the erect attitude, when its easy and extensive swaying 
movements from its bipedal base are readily observed. It drops 
to a quadrupedal gait if it wishes to shift its position even a few 
inches. Even in the erect attitude its femora are in the quad- 
rupedal position, hence no modification of the lower pelvis is 
necessary, but it has an anthropoidal plate which is quite equal 
to that of the gibbon, and is exceeded in development only by 
those of the three heavier anthropoid apes (Figure 4, m1). The 
other portions of its pelvic girdle are closely like those of the 
other and wholly quadrupedal edentates. The defective pubes 
and poorly developed ischia of its order deprive it of any power 
of bipedal progression. 


THE RODENTIAL SITTING HABIT 


The Rodentia are of special interest in arguing the importance 
of the anthropoidal plate to the erect posture on account of a 
modification of the ilium which is peculiar to this order. The most 
striking and fixed ordinal characteristic of the rodential pelvis 
is that in it the primitive external edge has become vestigial. 
In some Dipodinae it is apparent as a slight ridge, in Thryonomys 
swinderianus there is a transitional form, but in all other rodential 
pelves it is represented merely by a vestigial marking. 

The necessary mechanical function of stiffening the iliac blade 
against transverse strains, which is in almost all other pelves 
supplied by the persistence of the external primitive edge in 
ereater or less degree, is in most rodential ilia furnished by a 
thickened band in the dorso-lateral surface, which is peculiar to 
this order. It starts in the primitive dorso-lateral surface, nearly 
opposite the anterior inferior spine and terminates in the crest 
‘(Figure 1, v1). In the blade this new band lies dorsal to and nearly 
parallel with the vestigial evidences of the primitive external edge 
on the surface of the blade, and in those rodents which use an 
erect sitting attitude this band becomes a prominent ridge 


1 So far, at least, as the writer’s study of the somewhat large rodential collection of 
the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology warrants the statement. 


286 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


(Marmota marmota, Figure 1, v1), and thus effects a transverse 
extension of the blade which might easily be mistaken for a true 
anthropoidal plate if it were not for the vestigial marking along- 
side it. This development occurs in some squirrels (Sciurinae), 
in many marmots (Marmotinae), and in the beavers (Castoridae). 

The stiffly erect sitting position, which many marmots use 
when alarmed, which some squirrels at times use when feeding, 
and which beavers sometimes adopt when felling trees,+ must 
be carefully distinguished from a squatting position with relaxed 
back which is common to many small animals. In both, the hind 
legs are flexed and the buttocks and feet form a tripodal base of 
support. In the common squatting position the knees are pressed 
against the abdomen, the spine is relaxed and curved forward, 
the weight of the body is sustained by the knees, and no essen- 
tially increased action of the pelvio-corporeal muscles is involved 
in its use. In the erect sitting position, on the other hand, the spine 
is held stiffly vertical, the abdomen is free of the knees, and the 
pelvio-corporeal muscles are in full action. 

This latter attitude has all the appearances of a stage in the 
development of the erect posture. From analogy with the other 
partially erect animals we should expect that this habit would 
be accompanied by the development, to some degree, of an 
anthropoidal plate, with elongated and laterally extended free 
ilia, but with no other change in their pelves, since there is no 
possibility of the use of the limbs in bipedal progression from this 
attitude. In point of fact, these pelves show almost precisely the 
same shape of ilia that characterizes the smaller kangaroos, al- 
though it is obtained by an entirely different method of origin. 

That this shape has been attained by a new development in 
some members of an order which, as a whole, has suppressed the 
primitive external edge, and that it only occurs in animals which 
are known to have the erect sitting habit, seems to be of especial 
interest.” 


1 Statement justified by personal observation of a wild beaver. 

2 The writer is conscious that the argument from the Rodentia would be rendered com- 
plete only by evidence that those Sciuridae which are without this false anthropoidal 
plate are not in the habit of using the true erect sitting position, but this negative proof 
would require an amount of varied field knowledge which he is unable to supply. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 287 


THE BEAR 


A somewhat similar example of the development of the func- 
tional anthropoidal plate in a single family within an order ap- 
pears also among the Carnivora. Most of the members of this 
order are wholly predatory, and their pelves are, as a rule, 
specialized towards efficient quadrupedal activity and speed of 
motion. The chief ordinal character is iliac. The primitive ex- 
ternal edge typically merges with the ventral edge almost im- 
mediately after leaving its origin in the anterior inferior spine. 
The combined edge so formed is thick and strong, and the dorsal 
edge thickens to correspond; the blade between them is thin. 
Both shank and blade are thus formed almost wholly from the 
primitive dorso-lateral surface and the internal, the ven- 
tro-lateral being almost wholly effaced. The long diameter 
of all the cross sections runs approximately dorso-ventrally, 
and the blades throughout lie in nearly parallel dorso-ventral 
planes. In the most typical pelves the combined edge is very 
short, ending in the anterior superior spine shortly above the 
acetabulum, and a large part of the blade is thus formed by a 
cephalad extension of the crest, as in the lion (Felis leo, Figure 
4, vit). 

One single family of Carnivora is not wholly quadrupedal. The 
Ursidae have developed hind feet with plantar treads. Some of 
them,’ at least, are capable of assuming a fairly well developed 
erect bipedal standing position, and even of using at times, and 
for short distances, an awkward, waddling, bipedal walk. Their 
pelves show a corresponding variation from the ordinal car- 
nivoral type. 

In them the shank still suggests the normal carnivoral shape, 
the dorsal edge is thickened, and the ventro-lateral surface much 
narrowed. This surface is, however, distinctly a surface, and the 
external edge persists as a distinct entity, even in the shank. 
As it passes into the blade, moreover, it separates from the ventral 
edge and expands laterally into a well developed anthropoidal 
plate (Figure 4, vi). The anterior superior spine resumes its 


1 The several genera and species are said to vary greatly in the frequency and extent 
to which they use the erect position. There is certainly a noticeable variation in the degree 
of pelvic specialization. 


288 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


primitive position and the crest is well developed and shaped 
as in the other orders. 

The ilium as a whole is thus to a very considerable degree 
specialized for the erect posture, as would seem inevitable if so 
heavy an animal is to use any degree of that attitude, yet its car- 
nivoral method of development is still plainly recognizable. 

The sacrum is wider than in typical Carnivora, its spinal proc- 
esses are well developed, and the posterior superior spines of the 
ilium are prominent and wide apart. These conditions in com- 
bination with the well developed and laterally extended iliac 
crests, are all provisions for large and well situated origins of the 
pelvio-corporeal muscles. 

The parischial+ and metischial processes are prominent and 
strong, the pubis is ventrally prominent, and the pelvis as a whole 
is short, wide, and deep, as compared with most other Carnivora. 
These specializations of the lower pelvis are favorable to erect 
bipedal progression. As compared with the human specializations, 
they are very moderate, indeed slight, but it is noteworthy that 
we see them for the first time in the first, and perhaps the only 
quadruped in which true, erect, alternate, bipedal progression 
is a natural factor in habit. 


THE PRIMATES 


With the Primates we reach pelves which have a direct bearing 
upon the pelvis of man, since their owners are members of his 
own order.” All Primates, including man, therefore, attain their 
specializations, of whatever degree, by the same ordinal methods. 
It will then be necessary in this order to refer at least briefly to 
the pelves, not only of each family, but at times of lesser groups, 
as illustrative of the steps by which the human pelvis has probably 
evolved along its own and collateral stem. 

The primate pelvis has a well marked ordinate character, which 
is not shared by any other order, in the persistence and prominence 
of the primitive external edge in all three of the pelvic arms, 
i.e. the ilia, ischia, and pubes. 

Throughout the order there is a considerable development of 


1 A laterally extending process developed from the external primitive edge of the 
ischium, usually close to, or on the edge of the tuberosity. 
2 See Schultz, 1930. The Skeleton of the Trunk and Limbs of Higher Primates. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 289 


the free ilium. Throughout the order also there is a reduction of 
the primitive ventral edge, so that the strongly developed ex- 
ternal edge is situated close to the ventral line of the ilium. The 
cross section therefore tends to an L shape (Lemur mongos, Fig- 
ure 1, vu). In all but the most generalized members of the 
order, the primitive external edge is developed into an anthro- 
poidal plate, and this is prominent from its origin in the anterior 
inferior spine to the crest. The shank is usually rather long and 
merges gradually into the blade. In the ilia of the order as a 
whole, there is also a considerable development of the quadru- 
pedal plate from the dorsal edge, but this is much reduced in the 
Simiidae and in man. 

In the ischium the presence of a triangular cross section is 
fairly well marked throughout the length of the descending ramus 
in all the families, and there is always some indication of a 
parischial process, at least in the presence of a lateral projection 
in the edge of the tuberosity. 

In the pubes triangularity of cross section from the acetabulum 
to the symphysis exists throughout this order. It is rare, and 
is limited to small groups in the other orders. 

The primate pelvis is the more interesting from the fact that 
although the ordinate characters are preserved throughout, the 
several families exhibit every stage of habit and posture, from 
the quadrupedal to the erect bipedal, and exhibit equally clearly 
the corresponding degrees of specialization in the pelvis. 

Lemuroidea. The lemurs are mostly arboreal. As seen in the 
z00s, their movements about the cage are quadrupedal, but varied 
by very active bipedal leaping. It is reported that in their native 
habitat, when seen upon the ground, they progress when pressed 
by rapidly repeated leaps or hops, but do not walk. They have 
and use constantly a very fully developed erect sitting posture. 

The general shape and proportion of their pelves is primitive. 
The anthropoid plate is less well developed than in the true 
Primates, but it is primate in situation and exists as a definite, 
though narrow, plate from the anterior inferior spine to the crest 
(Lemur mongos, Figure 1, vur). It is perhaps somewhat more 
definitely developed than that of any other animal which ap- 
proaches the erect posture only by a sitting position. The symphy- 
sis pubis is strongly inclined, and the angle of the pubis projects 


290 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


strongly ventrally. This feature is always characteristic of leapers 
(Felis leo, Figure 4, vit, and Odocoileus, Figure 4, v1). Most 
great leapers also show a metischial development, which the 
lemurs do not. The descending ramus of the ischium is, however, 
rather unusually long, and this, to a certain extent, favors ex- 
tension of the femur. : 

It is difficult for the eye to follow the rapid movements of such 
very active animals, but it is evident that during the greater part 
of the motion the thigh is within the limits of the quadrupedal 
position, and it is probable that it is never carried into great ex- 
tension, even in the leap. They are otherwise strictly quadrupedal 
and they have quadrupedal pelves, but with the degree of anthro- 
poidal plate which corresponds to their sitting habit. 

Tarsius + and Daubentonia are nocturnal, arboreal quadrupeds 
with subequal limbs. Tarsius hops actively. Their pelves are 
primate, primitive, and lemuroid.? They are not of any special 
interest here. 

Anthropoidea. This suborder includes five families, of which 
the Hapalidae and Cebidae are confined to the New World, and 
the Simiidae and Cercopithecidae to the Old World. The Homini- 
dae is the fifth. 

The marmosets (Hapalidae) are arboreal quadrupeds. They 
have long bodies and rather short subequal limbs, a generalized 
type of quadrupedal construction. All four paws are equipped 
with sharp claws, with which they cling to the bark of the trees 
as they move about. Their locomotion is thus strictly quadru- 
pedal. They make a considerable use of a squatting posture, but 
in this attitude the trunk is allowed to curve forward in flexion, 
and its weight is apparently largely supported by the thighs and 
knees, which rest against the abdomen. The spine is not held 
extended, and the attitude cannot be described as an erect sitting 
posture. 

Their pelves correspond with their development. They show the 
primate characters in sufficient degree to make them recognizable 
as primate pelves, but the general shape of the pelvis is primitive 
and consequently quadrupedal. The primitive external edge is 


1 Colton, 1930, Biped Habit. 

2 Hopping from both hind legs is leaping. It requires the ischial and pubic characters 
which belong to all leaping quadrupeds, but not those which belong to alternate bipedal 
progression and its balance. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 291 


preserved throughout the ilium, and in the ventral position 
characteristic of the Primates, but it is not elevated into an 
anthropoidal plate. The blade is formed almost wholly by the 
dorso-lateral and internal surfaces, and, consequently, the long 
diameter of the cross section extends dorso-ventrally. The ischia 
and pubes are primitive and unspecialized in their shape and 
character. 

The New World monkeys: (Cebidae) may for our purposes 
be divided into two groups, those with prehensile tails (Mycetinae 
and Cebinae) and those whose tails are non-prehensile (Pithe- 
cunae and Nyctipithecinae). The pelves of these two groups 
differ, and differ most conclusively, in accordance with a corre- 
sponding difference in their locomotive habits. All are completely 
arboreal, but the Pitheciinae and Nyctipithecinae, with non- 
prehensile tails, are small animals which apparently move about 
the branches with all four paws used as grasping organs, and, of 
course, without any other assistance in their locomotion. 

Their pelves are but little specialized in any direction, and 
closely resemble those of the Hapalidae, with a little, but very 
little more development of the anthropoidal plate. 

The prehensile tailed monkeys, Alouata, Ateles, Lagothrix, and 
Cebus, have, as a whole, pelves with large and well developed 
anthropoidal plates, but the degree of this development varies 
considerably both among the several genera and species, and often 
between individuals within them. 

In Alouata, Ateles, and Lagothrix the anthropoidal plate is 
widest at the crest; the crest itself is thick and strongly developed. 
The sacrum is wide and has very strong and prominent spinous 
processes. All these characters are, of course, especially fitted 
to give advantages to the pelvio-corporeal group of muscles. 

The ilio-ischiatic axis is quite straight; the free ilium is shorter 
than in other anthropoids; the ischium and pubes are rather 
primitive and unspecialized. 

In action these animals frequently plant their hind feet against 
a branch, seize another with the prehensile tail, and from the 
strong and widely extended tripodal base so obtained, move the 
body about with the utmost freedom. The power and flexibility 


1 In addition to the quadrupedal marmosets (Hapalidae) which have been already 
described. 


292 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 





FIGURE 6 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 293 


FIGURE 6 


These pelves have been reduced or enlarged to an approximately 
uniform size to facilitate comparison. In all, the dotted lines A or B 
indicate the position at which the adjoining cross section of the ilium 
was taken. J is opposite the internal surface, D-l, the dorso-lateral, 
V-l, the ventro-lateral. 


I and II. Cesus (species uncertain). 


III and IV. Macaque (Lasitopyga kolbt). 


The contrast between the pelves of a representative specimen of 
the prehensile tailed Cebinae and one of the preponderantly quad- 
rupedal Cercopithecinae is well shown. Note the relative proportions 
and directions of the quadrupedal and anthropoidal plates in the two 
groups. Also the characteristic cercopithecidal tuberosity of the 
ischium. 


V. Grsson (Hylobates). The pelvis is short, broad, and shallow as 
compared with those of the other Simiidae. The crest is less de- 
veloped and the shank less differentiated from the blade. The long 
axes of the ischial tuberosities run almost directly transversely. See 
also Figure 9. 


VI. Oranea (Simia). The pelvis is broad, short, and deep. The iliac 
blades and crests are broad, flat, and straight. The ischia are narrow 
and the acetabula face laterally outwards. 


VII. CHIMPANZEE (Anthropopithecus). The iliac blade and shaft are 
thoroughly differentiated. The crest is well developed and highly 
curved. The ilia are relatively longer and the lower pelvis shorter 
than in the other great apes, but a slight difference in the angle from 
which this illustration was drawn somewhat exaggerates these facts. 
See also Figure 9. 


VIII. Goria (Gorilla gorilla). The pelvis is broader in proportion 
to its length; the crests are broad and highly curved; and the ischia 
are proportionately less wide than in the chimpanzee. Otherwise the 
pelves are much alike. See Figure 9. 


[Figure 6] 


294 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


of their lumbar regions are especially evident when one of them 
hangs suspended by the tail with its feet against a vertical sur- 
face, and the body and arms extended and moving about in hori- 
zontal directions. The reason for the sacral and iliac developments 
is at once evident. The larger Cebus monkeys indeed possess a 
degree of this development which is almost equal to that of the 
gibbon. 

The absence of a corresponding degree of ischial and pubic 
specialization is, of course, due to the fact that these animals in 
a state of nature probably make but little effort to use their legs 
in an erect, alternate, bipedal gait. 

The trained monkeys of the organ grinders which are usually 
members of this genus are familiar objects, and we are apt to think 
of them as erect bipedal animals. Closer observation will immedi- 
ately show that although the greatly developed spinal processes of 
their sacro-lumbar region and their fairly large anthropoidal 
plates allow them to erect and balance the trunk fairly well, they 
have little power of extension of the thighs. In spite of their 
very good feet their walk is quite tottering, and it is also to be re- 
membered that even this degree of bipedal progression is not 
natural to them but is in fact attained only as the result of care- 
ful and often prolonged training, while if forced to stand, they 
commonly adopt a tripodal base (Plate 1). They are at ease and 
active only in a quadrupedal gait. In a state of nature they 
probably rise to a bipedal attitude only when reaching for a high 
object. 

The Old World monkeys (Cercopithecidae) are divided into 
two subfamilies, the Cercopithecinae (the baboons and macaques) 
and the Semnopithecinae (the true monkeys of Africa and Asia). 
One is at first inclined to think of the Cercopithecinae as ter- 
restrial, and of the Semnopithecinae as arboreal animals, but, in 
fact, the habits of the two groups are not very radically different. 

Though the baboons are preponderantly terrestrial and quad- 
rupedal, they make frequent excursions into the trees, at least 
when their habitat permits it; while the macaques are rather more 
arboreal than terrestrial, but use both habits. They both have 
rather short, subequal legs. They are both, as a whole, heavy 
animals, are somewhat less active than the Semnopithecinae, and 
from their weight are necessarily confined to the larger branches. 


Prasopy Museum PAPERS Vou. XI, No. 5, Puate 1 





A trained Cebus in its usual standing position. 





IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 295 


The Semnopithecinae, though preponderantly arboreal, make 
frequent excursions to the ground. They are more lightly built, 
their pelvic limbs are considerably longer than their pectorals, 
and they are much more active and varied in their locomotion. 

Both subfamilies use a highly developed erect sitting position 
with great frequency. In that posture they use the fore limbs and 
paws as arms and hands, and flex and extend their lumbar regions 
freely and in all directions. When in motion upon the ground, both 
groups are quadrupedal, and even in the trees the baboons and 
macaques are essentially so, keeping their femora well within 
the limits of the quadrupedal position. 

Their pelves reflect their habits. In both subfamilies the ilio- 
ischial axis is straight, and the pubic arm extends from it at 
nearly a right angle (Figure 5, mr and tv), a distinctly quad- 
rupedal and primitive character. The ilium is, however, in them, 
as in all of the true Anthropoidea, thoroughly specialized and in 
no sense primitive. In them the quadrupedal plate is broad, and 
extends, of course, dorso-ventrally, but the anthropoidal plate is 
about equally broad, extends throughout the entire length of the 
ilium, and is directed almost exactly laterally. The L shape of 
the cross section is thus fully evident. In the Semnopithecinae 
the anthropoidal plate is somewhat more developed than in the 
Cercopithecinae, as would be expected from the difference in 
their habits, and it is especially wide in the free end of the ilium. 
In both, the crest is thickened and well developed. 

In the Cercopithecinae the ischium shows a most distinctive 
cercopithecidal character. The primitive external edge is very 
strongly developed, and terminates in a very prominent and 
broad parischial projection. The result is a very large and flat 
tuberosity of auricular shape, and of wide transverse diameter. 
In some of them the dorsal edge of the tuberosity also extends 
backward into a metischial projection. The ischia incline towards 
each other, and the inner edges of the broad tuberosities lie so 
closely together that the parturient opening is wholly post-ischial. 

In both subfamilies the pubic arm extends well forward (ven- 
trally). In both, the symphysis is long and curved; this last fea- 
ture being more evident in the Cercopithecinae. In both, the true 
pelvis is externally wide and also dorso-ventrally deep. 


1 So far, at least, as can be judged from observation in the zoos. 


296 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


It is evident that the ilium, with its wide quadrupedal plate, 
reflects the fact that these animals are essentially quadrupeds, 
and that the fairly well developed anthropoidal plate corresponds 
to their frequent and secure sitting habit. It is noteworthy that 
the preponderantly terrestrial Cercopithecinae have wider quad- 
rupedal and lesser anthropoidal plates than those of the mainly - 
arboreal Semnopithecinae. 

So, too, the great breadth of the ischia, the universal presence 
of a well developed parischial process, and in many, a metischial, 
with the strongly ventral projection of the symphysis, reflect 
their necessity for exertion in varied positions of the hind limbs 
and with somewhat more than a quadrupedal extension of the 
femur. 

The Simiidae. The pelves of the anthropoid apes show develop- 
ments of the ordinal, primate pelvis which are of especial interest 
in as much as they foreshadow the pelvis of man, and, in fact, 
constitute transitional stages towards it. 

The anthropoidal plate widens into a transverse blade un- 
equalled in any of the other animals which have been described. 

The ischium, sacrum, and pubes are modified to permit a greater 
extension of the femur than is necessary to the quadrupeds, and 
the shape and proportions of the three acetabular arms (the iliac, 
ischiatic, and pubic axes) distinctly suggest their very peculiar 
development in man. 

The four genera, however, differ widely both in habits and 
degree of pelvic development. They must consequently be de- 
scribed separately. 


Gibbon. The gibbons (Hylobates) are highly arboreal animals, 
brachiators by preference, and from the great interest which 
attaches to the relations between their pelves and their habits, 
these must be described with especial care. This description will 
so far cover the general family peculiarities that the other genera 
will be chiefly described by comparison therewith. 

The gibbons pass the greater part of their lives suspended from 
their hands and habitually moving among the branches, either 
by swinging from the grasp of one hand to that of the other, or 
by swinging leaps in which both hands release their grasp simul- 


1 See, however, the appendical note on Bradypus and the Ungulata. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 297 


taneously. In either leap the animal is often in unattached motion 
through the air until a new branch is grasped, frequently for a 
long distance. 

_ The lateral swinging motions are initiated and maintained ex- 
clusively by the arms, the legs being completely flexed, with the 
knees against the abdomen and the heels against the buttocks. 
The explanation for the adoption of this attitude of the hind limbs 
is, probably, that its effect is to raise the position of the center 
of gravity of the animal as a whole, thereby shortening the pendu- 
lum and lessening the moment of inertia against the initiation and 
increase or decrease of the motion. 

The antero-posterior swing is initiated by alternate flexions 
and extensions of the lumbar regions and legs, much like those 
used by a human gymnast upon a trapeze. 

Hornaday,? who has had unusually extended opportunities for 
watching the gibbon at home, says that when it is at top speed 
through the branches, the swing which starts from the hands fre- 
quently ends in the grasp of the feet, when the animal turns 
“ . . end over end, catching the branches with his hands and 
feet alternately.” 

Even among the branches, the gibbon is not exclusively a 
brachiator. The writer has several times seen a gibbon run along 
a horizontal branch for a few feet in a true, alternate, erect 
bipedal gait. In this progression, they steady themselves, if possi- 
ble, by grasping other branches with their hands, but for a short 
distance, nevertheless, they are able to keep their balance when 
compelled to do so, without any actual brachiation. In such cases, 
the arms are usually extended and moved about as aids to balance, 
and the feet undoubtedly aid in it by their grasp upon the 
branch. 

In nature the gibbon lives in the tree tops and his excursions 
to the ground are probably exceedingly rare.? In captivity those 
which are thoroughly tamed come to the floor of their cages not 
infrequently. They then move most rapidly and easily in a semi- 
erect position, by means of an approach to the bipedal gait, but 
with their arms, which are far longer than their legs, extended, 
and maintaining their balance by putting the knuckles to the 
ground, i.e. in a compromise between the bipedal and quadrupedal 


1 Hornaday, 1885, Two Years in the Jungle. 2 Ibid. 


298 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


gaits. However, they are capable of moving in a straight line only 
in a true, alternate, bipedal gait, even upon the ground, and of 
standing bipedally for brief periods. They have a well developed 
sitting posture, which is in frequent use. 

The ilium (Figure 6, v) shows an advance in Mey int 
over that of any of the lower Primates, but somewhat less 
than that of the other apes. The shank is somewhat more differ- 
entiated from the blade than it is in either the Cebidae or the 
Cercopithecidae, in which respect it approaches that of the other 
apes. The blade is wider and the crest is more developed than in 
the monkeys, but in both respects the gibbon shows much less 
specialization than the chimpanzee and gorilla. The quadrupedal 
plate is so greatly decreased that the L shape of the cross section 
hardly exists, and its long diameter is almost exactly transverse. 
This evidently corresponds to the fact that they have no complete 
quadrupedal gait. 

The sacrum is narrow, and very narrow on its dorsal as com- 
pared with its ventral surface. 

The ischia resemble those of the Cercopithecidae and have 
their peculiarly shaped tuberosities, but their inner ends are so 
close together that there is no sub-pubic arch, the whole ventral 
ramus of the ischium taking part in the symphysis. The long axis 
of the tuberosities is thus turned inward until it is very nearly 
transverse. The pubes are rather flat, and this absence of the 
ventral projection which is so constant in the lower anthropoids 
probably corresponds with the comparative absence of bipedal 
leaping in the gibbon’s habits. 

In general shape the pelvis is short and laterally wide as com- 
pared with those of the lower Anthropoidea, and shows some ap- 
proach to the human characters, but from the flat pubis it is 
rather shallow dorso-ventrally as compared with those of the 
other Simiidae and also of man. 

The most interesting character in this pelvis is a changed rela- 
tion of the three acetabular arms. 

The iliac axis leaves the acetabulum nearly in line with the 
ischiatic axis, but almost immediately bends dorsally, so that the 
angle between the remaining and greater part of the iliac and 
ischiatic axes is considerable (Figure 7, 1). This bend is visible 
externally, but is best seen on the internal surface of the ilium. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 299 


It is still better appreciated by palpation along the line of the 
thickened iliac axis. 

This bend in the iliac axis throws both the ischiatic and pubic 
axes backward, and the direction of the iliac axis thus lies almost 
directly between the other two. The result is that the three arms 
form an inverted Y, of which the iliac axis is the tail and the 
other two are the arms (Figure 2, 11). 





x ila a a 1V 
FIGURE 7 
I. GIBBON II. CHIMPANZEE 
III. GORILLA Iv. MAN 


The dotted lines show the axes of the pelvic arms in each of the animals. 

The complex and varying curves of the pelves make any representation of these axes 
on a single plane difficult and imperfect. They are much more easily appreciated on the 
actual specimens, and here again, palpation is the more valuable method of examination. 
There is a very great individual variation in the amount of the iliac curve within each 
of the three genera of Simiidae. 

Note that in the apes the axis of the auricular surface is directed diagonally downward 
and backward, and is but slightly curved. In man it is much curved, and its posterior 
half runs in a direction which, if the iliac axis were straight, woud be backward and 
upward. 


This is a very significant change from the nearly straight ilio- 
ischiatic axis with the pubic bracket at nearly a right angle to it, 
which characterizes the quadrupeds and the lower Primates. It is 
definitely an adaptation favorable to the control of an extended 
femur and may be regarded as presenting a transitional stage 
between the quadrupedal innominate and that of man. It is some- 


300 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


what more highly developed in the chimpanzee and gorilla pelves, 
but varies much in degree not only in the three genera but also 
as between individuals in each of them. 

These pelvic characters are very closely those which animals of 
the gibbon’s peculiar habits might have been expected to acquire. 

As one watches the initiation of the forward swing from both 
hands, it is very evident that a capacity for complete extensions 
and flexions of the lower limbs is essential to the rapidity and 
completeness with which it is executed. It should be noted, too, 
that at any time when the gibbon hangs by his feet, head down- 
ward, his pelvic limb is completely extended; that the action 
described by Hornaday is evidently facilitated by a capacity for 
nearly complete extension of the pelvic limbs; and that these 
frequent necessities for the head down position in the aboreal 
life of the animal may not improbably be another important 
factor towards its acquisition of a confirmation which permits it. 
The ways in which the pelvic developments favor these extensions 
and flexions are very evident. 

The iliac bend has, as has been said, an important evolutionary 
significance. Its mechanical effect is much the same in kind as 
that which is produced by the metischial processes and pubic 
prominence which we have noted in the quadrupedal leapers and 
diggers, but the method by which this advantage is developed is 
new and peculiar to the Primates. When it is followed into the 
higher degrees which are often shown by the chimpanzees and 
gorillas, it throws a decidedly illuminating light upon the transi- 
tional stages which probably existed in the ancestors of man and 
so preceded the full development of the human pelvic girdle. 

The greater development of the crest gives to the pelvio- 
corporeal muscles of lateral flexion an increase of both power 
and accuracy of action. The greater expanse of the blade as a 
whole gives to the glutei both an increase of size and a change 
in the situation of their origins, which must add much to their 
efficiency as extensors, abductors, and rotators in the extended 
positions of the femur. The iliacus flexor also gains in size. The 
more dorsal situation of the ischial tuberosities, which is due to 
the bend in the ilio-ischiatic axis, gives to the ham-string muscles, 
also, greater power over the extending femur. 

These many added factors of accuracy of control over the 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 301 


motions of both the trunk and limbs in an extended posture must 
be all-essential to the speed and direction of the gibbon’s wonder- 
ful brachiating swings through the branches. These are executed 
by the arms, but of necessity gain their direction from the chang- 
ing attitudes of the trunk and legs as the swing starts. 

A gibbon in the very large open air cage in the London Zoo 
was once seen to watch the flight of a bird which had been loosed 
within it, and then so to time and direct his own swing that he 
was able to catch the bird in full flight and yet reach the branch 
toward which his own course through the air was directed as easily 
as though no such incident had occurred. 

On due consideration of the accuracy of the gibbon’s arboreal 
activity, and of the value of complete control of the extended legs 
in its direction, it seems probable that all these pelvic specializa- 
tions may have been developed in response to the necessity for 
speedy, accurate, and extended motions of the hind limbs which 
is involved in the “trapeze gymnastics” of his brachiating 
aerial life. 

His posture and gait when he uses the bipedal method of pro- 
gression either upon a branch or on the ground show, upon the 
other hand, the limitations which are imposed by the very moder- 
ate degree to which these developments have advanced. 

A gibbon’s attitude when standing or walking varies consider- 
_ ably from that which he assumes in his occasional short but rapid 
bipedal runs, and the two must be studied separately. 

In standing or walking the trunk is inclined forward from the 
buttocks to a much more than human degree,' but the back is 
nearly straight and the head is carried quite well erected. This 
gives the position of the gibbon quite a human appearance at 
the first glance. In fact, when standing or walking his position 
appears as a whole, to a casual observer, to be almost human, 
but on closer observation it proves to be only a modification of 
that which is characteristic of the other anthropoids. The lower 
leg is inclined forward from the ankle to the knee; the knee is 
rather in advance of the foot; the thighs are sloped strongly 
backward; and the buttocks are behind the heels. The femora are’ 
considerably abducted and the knees are therefore quite wide 


1 Some such inclination is of course present in the natural position of most men and 
of almost all women. 


302 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


apart. The limb as a whole is then in a far from human position, 
though it is in a somewhat nearer approach to it than is that of 
either the chimpanzee or gorilla in either their standing or walk- 
ing positions. The walk is waddling, as a result of the compara- 
tively wide position of the knees, but not to a very marked extent. 

In rapid running upon a flat surface the whole body is strongly 
inclined forward, the lower limbs are much more extended, the 
knees are nearer together than in the walk, and the waddle disap- 
pears (Plate 2). In this gait he is, however, probably very con- 
siderably aided by the inertia of motion, which greatly assists his 
balance and also lessens the effort of his muscles in supporting his 
weight. When in this gait he is, however, quite incapable of 
changing the direction of his run without bringing his hands to 
the ground. 

The difference in attitude between these two gaits is important 
in its relation to the leverages which his pelvis affords to his 
pelvio-femoral muscles. 

The gibbon’s femur is very long, and extremely long as com- 
pared to the size of his pelvis. His extensor and other femoral 
muscles are, therefore, from the shortness of the power arms of 
the levers, adapted to the production of very rapid motions, but 
lose in power to a corresponding degree. 

His aerial performances show conclusively that their power is 
quite sufficient to move his legs with speed and great accuracy 
even when they are in complete extension, so long as only their 
light weight is to be moved. 

His standing and walking attitude, on the other hand, proves 
that their origin from the very short arms of the levers, which are 
all that is afforded by the small pelvis and the inverted Y arrange- 
ment, makes their power of control over the fully extended femur 
insufficient for the support of the body in the erect posture and 
compels him to use the femur in an only partially extended posi- 
tion when standing or walking upon his feet. 

The comparatively, but not wholly, complete extension of the 
legs in the rapid run shows that the smaller amount of force that 
is needed to hold a rapidly moving object to a straight line per- 
mits their use in a somewhat more extended position. 


1 Note that the muscles which control the grasp of his feet have other origins and are 
full of power. 


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IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 303 


At either gait the imperfect character of the feet (base of 
support) is of course important. 

As observed in captivity, gibbons vary greatly in the tread of 
their feet. Of two young gibbons which were studied in the 
London Zoo and which were closely similar in age, size, and 
appearance,' one walked upon the outer edge of his inturned 
feet, while the other had the sole on the ground and the hallux 
widely extended. Similarly an adult white-handed gibbon in the 
New York Zoological Garden walks upon the fifth metatarsal 
edge, while an adult of the same species in the Philadelphia Zoo 
has a completely plantar tread, again with extended hallux. (This 
last animal seldom walks erect, but runs frequently, and is then 
very erect.) The variation thus appears to be individual rather 
than specific, but the feet are very long, and with the inturned 
tread the digits are curled inward in partial flexion so that the 
fifth metatarsal and fifth digit are in contact with the ground 
‘throughout their length. The feet are carried well apart, and with 
either tread evidently give a very fair base of support. 

The gibbon is a small and extremely lightly built animal, and 
the fact that it. can attain a somewhat more complete, even if 
occasional and brief, bipedal attitude than the other apes, with a 
somewhat lesser pelvic development, is evidently a consequence 
of the all-important law of squares and cubes. 

Orang. The orang (Simia) is less bipedal in its habits than any 
other member of this family. It is highly arboreal, and is quad- 
rumanous, grasping the branches or other supports about it with 
any one of its four extremities, and progressing by the use of 
any two of them as a pair. It is a heavy animal, and when active, 
swings and throws itself about in a great variety of actions, 
during which both groups of pelvic muscles are called upon for 
active and varied use. 

It is a marked peculiarity of this animal that it habitually uses 
its legs with the femora in a position midway between extension 
and flexion, but abducted until they are directed laterally out- 
wards. In correspondence to this habit the acetabula open almost 
directly laterally. Its arms are powerful and are longer than its 
legs. It is very prone to sustain itself by grasping an upright 


1 They were presumably of the same species, but circumstances prevented the writer 
from making sure of this. 


304 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


object with the hand and foot of one side extended laterally, and 
in this position swings itself about in order to grasp another object 
with the hand and foot of the opposite side. It uses its hands and 
feet as grasping organs with equal facility. 

Upon a level surface it has, at times, a fairly active quadru- 
pedal gait, but the tread is upon the flexed knuckles of all four 
hands. Its most characteristic and perhaps most frequent move- 
ment across the floor of its cage is from a sitting position with 
its buttocks as a base. Its hind limbs are then flexed and it swings 
from spot to spot between its long arms, which are used as if they 
were crutches. 

In a state of nature it probably rarely, if ever, attempts an 
erect bipedal balance. It is very rarely seen in an erect position 
in the zoos, though it is just capable of an erect balance and 
of a few steps in bipedal progression, but with a very peculiar gait. 

An immature orang in the London Zoo was, with considerable 
difficulty, persuaded by its keeper to stand and to walk a few steps 
under the observation of the writer. In the standing position the 
lower legs were considerably inclined forward and the thighs 
were much flexed, the tread was upon the fifth metatarsal edge, 
but the chief peculiarity of the position was that the thighs were 
abducted to fully forty-five degrees from the median line. The 
step was made by carrying the limb which gave the impulse back 
into a completely lateral position (i.e. by increased abduction), 
while the advancing leg was merely cleared from the ground; 
the posterior limb was then brought forward by a swinging mo- 
tion of adduction; then the process was repeated on the other 
side. The result was a rather ludicrous and inept waddle. 

It has a well developed sitting position. 

Its pelvis is broader laterally in proportion to its length than 
that of any other Primate, except man. It is also deep dorso- 
laterally (Figure 5, v1). 

The ilium has a short shank and an anthropoidal plate which 
extends almost directly laterally and is marked by great lateral 
width rather than by length. The crest is straighter, and the blade 
is consequently more nearly triangular in aspect, when viewed 
from in front, than in any other of the great apes. The sacrum 
is also relatively broad and short, and the interlocking processes 
between the sacrum and the ilium are well developed. The ischium 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 305 


is but little different from that of the Cercopithecidae, though 
the tuberosities are less flat and broad. The pubis shows a highly 
marked triangularity of cross section, probably in correspondence 
to the great strains put upon the adductor muscles in managing 
the femora in the peculiar abducted position which is character- 
istic of the animal. 

The ilio-ischiatic axis is nearly straight, and the pubic axis is 
nearly at right angles to it. The metischial process is not promi- 
nent, while the parischial is rather large. 

In these very important particulars, the orang is alone among 
the Simiidae in being unspecialized towards any use of the femur 
in an extended position. This condition, and the lateral expansion 
of the whole pelvis, the lateral facing of its acetabula, and the 
parischial development, are evidently specializations towards its 
peculiar quadrumanous progression. They all evidently afford 
the best of leverages for lateral flexions of the trunk and for the 
use of the thigh in an abducted position, and in one which is midway 
between flexion and extension. The somewhat extreme degree of 
this peculiar specialization is just what would be expected in so 
heavy and, at times, extremely active an animal. 

Chimpanzee. The chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus), a large and 
heavy animal, is primarily arboreal, but is quite at home upon the 
eround and is capable of rapid and sustained progress upon its 
surface. Its gait at such times may be described as semi- 
quadrupedal, since its arms are decidedly longer than its legs, and 
the trunk inclines strongly upward from the hips. In this gait the 
plantar surface of the pes is, at times, wholly in contact with the 
ground, at times, in its digital portion only, the knuckles only 
of the hands. The fore limbs thus maintain its balance, and, at 
most, sustain the weight of the fore part of the animal only, while 
the hind limbs support most of its weight, and apparently supply 
practically all of the forward impulse. These conditions evidently 
demand powerful actions of the legs in a more extended position 
than would be necessary if the trunk were horizontal, and it 
should be remembered that the pelvic adaptations which are 
appropriate to this considerable elevation of the trunk also favor 
the adoption of an erect bipedal attitude. 

As a quadruped the chimpanzee is a very active animal. It is, 
in fact, preponderantly a quadrupedal animal and as such is 


306 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


evidently quite capable of successful pursuit of food and avoid- 
ance of enemies. 

Even when not hurried it usually moves about in this quad- 
rupedal way, but for short distances, and when at ease, it at times 
uses a semi-erect bipedal gait. The lower leg is then almost ex- 
actly erect (Plate 3). The knee is in moderate flexion, and either 
above or slightly in advance of the foot. The thigh slopes back- 
ward from the knee towards the buttocks. The buttocks are well 
behind the feet, and the trunk inclines forward. The center of 
gravity is thus above the base of support, but the legs are not 
columnar, and the posture as a whole is but semi-erect; the knees 
are wide apart and the gait is waddling, but the balance is fairly 
well maintained. This is the typical anthropoidal erect attitude 
as contrasted with the human. 

The animal can not only walk bipedally, but since its feet give 
it a tolerably firm base of support, it maintains a bipedal stand- 
ing balance fairly well, in the same anthropoidal attitude, how- 
ever. It has a well developed and thoroughly well balanced sitting 
position. Its balance is good enough to enable it to use its hands 
and arms freely when standing, walking, or sitting. It is, however, 
so far from perfect, that if there is a fixed object within reach, 
the animal is apt to seize it, or to rest a hand upon it, as it stands 
or moves about bipedally. 

In all of this the form of the foot is, of course, of great impor- 
tance. That of the chimpanzee, though still, on the whole, of an 
arboreal type, approaches that of the gorilla and foreshadows 
the human type, more especially in the character of its mid- 
tarsus, and in the strength and development of the hallux.1 The 
whole plantar surface of the foot is then in contact with the 
eround. 

The pelvis (Figure 6, vir) reflects the habits of the animal in 
an interesting way, and especially in its general shape. In the 
shank of the ilium the anthropoidal plate is somewhat narrower 
proportionally than in any of the anthropoids previously de- 
scribed, and expands more abruptly as it enters the blade, which 
is thus more differentiated from the shank than in them. It is 
much wider in the blade than in any of them, except the orang. 


1 Morton, 1923, The Evolution of the Human Foot; and also, Miller, 1920, Conflicting 
Views of the Problem of Man’s Ancestry. 


Prasopy MusrtuM Papers Vou. XI, No. 5, Piats 3 





pe 


Enlargements from motion pictures taken in the gardens of Mme. Abreu in Havana. 
The chimpanzee at the left is standing; the one on the right is walking. Both attitudes 
are thoroughly characteristic. 





IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 307 


The free ilium is long, and the crest rises in a considerable curve 
between the anterior and posterior superior spines (consult sub- 
headings Gorilla and Man), but on this point there is much indi- 
vidual variation. In some specimens the crest also has a con- 
siderable ventral curve, and there is a decided foreshadowing of 
an iliac fossa. In others there is very little of this. 

The sacrum is narrow ventrally, and much narrower on its 
dorsal surface. This marked difference in the width of the sur- 
faces also appears in the gorilla and man. Its spinous processes 
are small, but those of the lumbar region are large, strong, and 
prominent. 

The tuberosity of the ischium shows moderately developed 
metischial and parischial processes. 

The pubis is ventrally more prominent than in the gibbon. 

In its general shape the pelvis is shorter and broader than it 
is in the true quadrupeds or lower Anthropoidea, but these changes 
are much less marked than in man. The bend in the iliac shank 
which is responsible for the inverted Y arrangement is somewhat 
more developed (Figure 7, 1) than in the gibbon, but it is some- 
what less pronounced than in most female gorillas, and much 
less than is usual in the still heavier male gorilla. 

That a somewhat less degree of perfection of the erect habit 
than that of the gibbon requires a somewhat greater degree of 
bony specialization in this and the still heavier gorillas again 
illustrates the importance of the law of squares and cubes. 

Gorilla. The gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) is much the heaviest of the 
Primates. One adult male has been reported as weighing more 
than four hundred and fifty pounds. Its habitat is limited to a 
few small and, for the most part, rather inaccessible districts in 
Africa, and even there, its numbers are probably not large. Its 
habits in its native wilds are but little known, and the best 
published accounts, those of Akeley and of Barns, are only 
incidentally concerned with its locomotive habits. Both sexes 
are described as habitually quadrupedal. Numerous hunters 
have, however, reported that when the adult male is confronted 
at close quarters, he rises into a bipedal position and advances 
bipedally. It seems probable that the female is also capable of 
this attitude, but no definite statement on this point has been 
found. 


308 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


It is believed that the gorilla is primarily a terrestrial animal, 
though with a habit of making excursions into the trees. The 
sexes differ greatly in size, weight, and degree of pelvic specializa- 
tions. Even the females and young are restricted by their weight 
to the larger branches. None but very young gorillas have ever 
been captured, and few of them have survived for any length of 
time. Only two have been accurately observed and reported on, 
both immature males, under the care of Miss Alyse Cunningham 





FIGURE 8 


Tracings from very indistinct photographs 


I. One of Miss Cunningham’s young gorillas in a bipedal standing position. It will be 
seen that one of the feet has an inverted, the other a plantar tread; the same peculiarity 
has been reported as habitual in some chimpanzees and gibbons. 


II. The same animal in a quadrupedal gait. 


and Major Penny, in London. Both of them died at the beginning 
of their second dentition. They were therefore still in the childish 
stage of life, and not even adolescent, but so little is known of 
the gaits and attitudes of the adult that those of even these 
young specimens assume importance (Figure 8). Miss Cunning- 
ham has published several accounts of their habits, with photo- 
graphs, and she and Major Penny have kindly exhibited their 
collection of photographs and motion pictures to the writer, be- 
sides answering many questions. From their account it would 
1 See also, Yerkes and Yerkes, 1929, The Great Apes. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 309 


appear that the habits and gait of the young male gorilla are very 
closely similar to those of the chimpanzee.1 

The pelvis of the gorilla (Figure 6, vir) differs from that of 
the chimpanzee only in presenting a much more advanced stage 
of the same specializations. That of the female is frequently 
distinctly less advanced in each of the peculiar characters than 
that of the male, and those of the males vary considerably in 
degree among themselves, chiefly in correspondence with their 
size, which also varies considerably. In general, the larger the 
pelvis, the higher the degree of specialization. That of the male 
will be taken as the type. 

In general shape, the lateral width and dorso-ventral depth 
are greater in proportion to the length than those of the chim- 
panzee, and in obedience to the law of squares and cubes, the 
whole pelvis is, of course, more massive proportionally. 

The shank of the ilium is shorter; the blade is much wider; the 
crest is thicker and more developed; its arch from the posterior 
superior to the anterior superior spine is more pronounced; and 
its ventral curve is greatly increased, thus forming an internal 
iliac fossa, which is well marked in all and very pronouncedly 
developed in most of the larger specimens. 

The sacrum is shorter and broader proportionally, and the 
synchondroses are longer proportionally than in the chimpanzee. 
The interlocking processes between the iliac and sacral surfaces 
are often many, prominent, and complicated. 

The dorsally directed bend in the iliac axis is usually more 
pronounced than in the chimpanzee, and in the large males the 
relationship of its formation to that present in the human pelvis is 
very clear (Figure 7, m1). A beginning development of the tuber- 
osity of the ilium is evident in some specimens. The ilio-ischiatic 
and ilio-pubic angles are somewhat more acute, and the arms of 
the inverted Y are thus somewhat more widely separated. 

In all these respects, the pelvis of the lighter female occupies, 
upon the average, a position about midway between those of the 
chimpanzee and the male gorillas. 

The relationship between the pelves of the chimpanzees 


1 The skeleton of one of these individuals is in the Museum of The Royal College of 
Surgeons. The pelvis is characteristically that of a gorilla, but in this connection it should 
be noted that it is, of course, immature, and its specializations are decidedly less advanced 
in degree than even those of an adult female. 


310 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


and gorillas is thus just what would be expected between ani- 
mals of probably closely similar habits, but widely differing 
weights. 

The comparatively frequent use of the erect attitude by these 
three genera of the Simiidae, and their acquisition of a fairly 
useful, true, alternate, bipedal progression may probably be taken 
as showing that the primate method of developing leverages which 
give the pelvio-femoral muscles an improved control over the ex- 
tended femur is an advance over the mere metischial and pubic 
prominences which have been described as appearing in some 
true quadrupeds. Their imperfect balance and waddling gaits 
show that in the degree to which it has been advanced in these 
anthropoids it is not sufficient for complete success in bipedal 
progression. 

It is, however, an evident transitional step towards the human 
arrangement which is next to be described, and which was 
probably also possessed, in some degree, by man’s prehuman 
ancestors. Its conversion into the mechanically more efficient 
plan of the human pelvis needs only the very easy evolution of 
one more pelvic arm, or line of strength, and some changes in the 
general shape of the girdle. These, too, are the more easily compre- 
hended if we remember, first, that the pelves of both the Simiidae 
and Ursidae are also usually shorter, wider, and of greater antero- 
posterior depth than those of other quadrupeds, or even of their 
near relatives; second, that these changes, like the development 
of the Y, increase proportionally to the degree of frequency and 
perfection of the erect habit, and to the increasing weights of the 
animal. 


The Hominidae. Man. Man is essentially terrestrial and wholly 
bipedal in his habits. He has entirely lost the quadrupedal activity 
of his remote ancestors. Bipedally he excels the anthropoids in 
degree, in the excellence of his balance in the erect posture, in 
his capacity for standing, walking, and running bipedally for ex- 
tended periods, and in the rapidity of his erect progression. In 
his varied bipedal activity he differs from them in kind, and is 
unique. Man, and man alone, is able to spring in any direction 
from a bipedal position, and, moreover, he alights from such a 
spring with a certainty of balance which enables him to repeat 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 311 


it in the same or a different direction. This may seem a small 
point to insist upon, but this ability to avoid an attack or to 
pursue a dodging quadruped must not only have been of inestima- 
ble value to primeval man, but its development was perhaps in 
itself the factor which enabled the ancestral anthropoid finally to 
abandon the quadrupedal gait, and which freed his fore paws for 
development into the human hand. It is strictly an attribute of 
man alone, and is dependent not only upon his more perfect foot, 
but to an equal, or perhaps greater degree upon the extreme 
specialization of his pelvis. 

This will be described here entirely by comparison with those 
of the other animals. 

The human pelvis as a whole is very short and broad (Figure 9, 
v, v1, and vit). Its external antero-posterior diameter? is long 
in proportion to the total height of the pelvis, and the breadth- 
height index of the innominates is also high, in comparison with 
that of the anthropoids and most other mammals. 

The innominates, in addition to their high breadth-height index, 
possess distinctively human characters in their increased curva- 
tures, in the extreme development of the anthropoidal plate, in the 
greatly bent iliac axis, and in their acquisition of a new and very 
important development, that of the tuberosity of the ilium and 
the line of architectural strength which extends between it and 
the acetabulum. 

The specializations of the ilium are perhaps the most striking. 
The great change in the direction of its axis (Figure 7, 1v) must 
be described first. A full familiarity with this change is essential 
to any complete comprehension of the pelvic share in the mechan- 
ism of the erect posture, and to an understanding of the very 
complex relations of the anthropoidal plate (which forms the 
whole iliac blade) to the rest of the pelvis. 

Although it can be perceived, especially on the internal sur- 
face of the bone, and by palpation, that the iliac axis, i.e. the 
line which follows the center of the triangular cross section, per- 
haps shows a trace of leaving the acetabulum in line with the 
ischiatic axis,” its course runs, almost from the start, posteriorly 
and at almost a right angle to the ischiatic axis (Figure 7, IV). 


1 Anterior face of symphysis to end of spinal process of first sacral vertebra. 
2 This is often more apparent in the female than in the male. 


312 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


This is so important a point that something should be said here 
about the best method of determining it. 

In the more primitive pelves the triangularity of the cross 
section of the ilium is readily apparent. In the more specialized, 
i.e. in the Simiidae and especially in man, it is less easily recog- 
nized by the eye, but even in them it can be clearly appreciated 
by palpation. 

In man the primitive ventral edge is represented by the iliac 
portion of the ilio-pectineal line, and by the anterior edge of the 
articular surface which continues it. The primitive dorsal edge 
forms the border of the iliac portion of the so-called sacro-sciatic 
notch. The primitive external edge runs, as always, from the 
anterior inferior to the anterior superior spine. It is the fact that 
this edge has been carried so far away from the iliac axis and has 
been turned so far forward by the great development of the 
anthropoidal plate which obscures the triangularity of cross sec- 
tion in the gorilla and man to the eye of anyone who has not 
followed the successive steps in its development among the other 
Anthropoidea. If, however, the thumb of one hand is placed upon 
the inner surface of the ilium, immediately above the acetabulum, 
and the thumb and finger of the other hand are applied to the 
internal and external fossae, as near as possible to the other 
thumb, the triangularity of cross section in the shank is at once 
appreciated. Remembering that the auricular surface is always a 
part of the primitive internal surface, and neglecting the anthro- 
poidal plate, i.e. in these pelves the whole blade, the triangularity 
of the axis can then be easily followed to the crest.t 

At first sight it would often seem that in the male the axis was 
bent upon itself to much more than a right angle, but if it is 
remembered that the axis, or line of greatest strength, lies in the 
center of the cross section, it will be evident that the greater 
narrowing of the sacro-sciatic notch of the male is formed by an 
excessive flexion of the primitive posterior edge rather than of 
the axis itself. The position of the true iliac axis varies com- 
paratively little as between the sexes. 

The great width of the blade is due to the high degree of de- 
velopment of the anthropoidal plate, which extends from the retro- 


1 In other words, tracing out the primitive external edge by the base line of the 
anthropoidal plate. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 313 





vl ; Vil 
FIGURE 9 
I. GIBBON IV. GORILLA 
II. ORANG Vv. MAN 
III, CHIMPANZEE VI. MAN 
VII. MAN 


Bilateral asymmetry is almost the rule in the pelves of the Simiidae. That it is the left ilium that is 
narrow in all the first three figures is a mere coincidence. 


I. The sacrum is incompletely shown as the drawing was made from an articulated specimen and 
most of thesacrum was hidden from the camera lucida. 


314 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


flexed iliac axis to the anterior spines. Its great extent, however, 
is due rather more to the backward flexion of the axis than to the 
anterior position of the spines, although they are, in fact, situated 
much further forward than in the anthropoids. It must be under- 
stood, too, that its expansion is fan-like, i.e. that its lines of cross 
section radiate from the curved axis, starting always at right 
angles to the axis and therefore radiating apart from each other 
as they proceed towards the crest. 

The crest is greatly developed, thickened, strengthened, and 
increased in width. It shows in full degree the S curve which is 
due to the development of the internal and external iliac fossae 
and which in developed form is a human attribute, although it is 
foreshadowed in the Simiidae (Figure 9) and appears in some 
ungulates (see Appendix). As a result of this curve the bi-spinal 
diameter is always less than the greatest bi-iliac, which is typi- 
cally, though by no means always, between the tuberosities. The 
anterior inferior spine has been shifted forward and inward along 
the edge of the acetabulum and is directed almost exactly an- 
teriorly, whereas in the quadrupeds it is external and is directed 
laterally, and in the Simiidae it occupies an intermediate position. 

The tuberosity of the ilium is distinctively a human character- 
istic, although, as has been said, a beginning tuberosity is per- 
ceptible in many male gorillas. Palpation will show in all cases 
that the ilium is thickened along a line running from the ace- 
tabulum to the tuberosity, but this thickness and also increase of 
strength often persists in partial degree across that segment of 
the blade which lies between its greatest development in the 
acetabulo-tuberous line and the anterior spines. 

The ischium as a whole is short, and its shank is very short. 
The tuberosity runs up nearly to the edge of the acetabulum and 
its surface for muscular attachments is largely on the posterior 
aspect of the ischium. The spine of the ischium is greatly de- 
veloped, in correspondence to the extremely important function 
of the great sacro-sciatic ligaments in the attitude and gait 
of man. 3 

In the ischium of even the most specialized pelves the trian- 
gularity is apparent to the eye. The primitive dorsal edge is 
easily identified by the spine of the ischium which projects from 
it, the anterior (primitive ventral) edge is in the obturator 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 315 


foramen, and the external edge runs from the acetabulum to the 
tuberosity. 

The acetabular ramus of the pubis is strong and has a much 
more fully developed triangularity of cross section than in the 
anthropoids, although it is in them more easily recognized on 
account of the less complex shape of the ramus. 

This triangularity in the pubes is rare and is limited to small 
groups in the other orders. The edge of the foramen corresponds 
to the primitive dorsal and the pectineal line is the primitive 
ventral edge. The external runs from the acetabular opening to 
the spine of the pubis. The symphysis is short and broad. 

The sacrum is extremely broad in proportion to its length but 
its external or posterior surface is narrow as compared with the 
internal. Its spinous processes are much reduced in prominence, 
and the arches may even be diastemic. It is distinguished from 
other sacra by the great antero-posterior depth of the first ver- 
tebra, which, with a similar condition in the fifth lumbar, forms 
the promontory. 

The mechanical relations which are dependent upon these 
altered proportions of the human pelvis are of great interest. 
They must be considered both from the norma lateralis and norma 
verticalis, and in their relation to the pelvio-femoral and to the 
pelvio-corporeal muscles. 

The direction of the sacral axis is thrown considerably back- 
ward by the formation of the promontory and lumbar curve. This 
combines with the bend in the iliac axis to throw the ischium also 
backward, and places the tuberosity of the ischium in a posterior 
position which could otherwise be obtained only by a long 
metischial process. The pubis is also, of course, rotated down- 


1 The effect of these changes upon the sacro-iliac synchondrosis is very interesting. In 
primitive pelves the iliac surface of the synchondrosis runs along the primitive internal 
surface cephalo-caudally, or at most, slightly cephalo-dorsally. In the more specialized 
quadrupeds the angle of its direction varies considerably, but it runs, in general, in a 
cephalo-dorsal direction. 

In the Simiidae its upper (i.e. cephalad) part runs cephalo-caudally along the primi- 
tive ventral edge (Plate 1), but the lower part turns to run cephalo-dorsally across the 
primitive internal surface to the primitive dorsal edge. 

In man the upper part runs in the primitive direction (i.e. in that which with a 
straight axis would be cephalo-caudal) along the primitive ventral edge, while the lower 
part has increased the curve and change of direction which exists in the Simiidae so 
greatly that, after crossing to the primitive dorsal edge, it often ends by running along 
that edge in a direction which is the reverse of the primitive, i.e. caudo-cephalad. 

The writer believes that this change has a probable bearing on the conflict between the 


316 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


ward, and the anterior superior spines of the ilium are thrown 
forward. | 

The position assumed by the whole pelvis in the erect position 
varies considerably in different individuals and its mean has 
never been satisfactorily determined for either sex, but the con- 
ventional position, in which the pubis and the anterior superior 
spines of the ilium are in the same vertical plane, will be assumed 
for the purposes of this paper as approximately correct.* 

The changes in the constructional architecture of the innomi- 
nates which follow these changes of shape and direction are also 
important. 

It will be remembered that in the more primitive mammals the 
architectural strength of the pelvis is mainly concentrated in the 
approximately straight ilio-ischiatic axis, with the average posi- 
tion of the femur at about a right angle thereto (Figure 3) ; also 
that in the Simiidae the chief lines of strength are distributed in 
somewhat the shape of an inverted Y, and with the line of the 
femur between the tails of the Y. In the human pelvis the appear- 
ance of the new acetabulo-tuberous line of strength and the much 
increased bend in the iliac axis give to the architecture of the 
pelvis a mechanical construction which may be fairly represented 
by an X with its arms very nearly at right angles and with the 
line of force of the extended femur lying between the lower arms 
of the X? (Figures 2 and 7). 

When viewed from the norma lateralis, it may perhaps be more 
satisfactorily compared to a wheel, with the acetabulum then 
representing the hub; the four pelvic arms or lines of strength, 
the spokes; while the iliac crest, the pubo-ischiatic ramus, the 


pelvic part in the mechanism of the erect position and the necessary provisions for the 
parturient process, but it is not possible to enter into the question of the relations of the 
pelvis to labor within the limits of this article. All that can be said here is that condi- 
tions in the Hominidae make it necessary that the sacro-iliac articulation should be very 
firm, and at the same time capable of adaptation to parturition. 

1 From X-ray studies in the erect posture which the writer has made, but which are 
not yet ready for publication, it seems probable that this position is sufficiently near the 
average to warrant the general statements which will be made in the text. 

2 The mechanical effect of the femur considered as a supporting structure is, of course, 
exerted in a straight line between the bearing surfaces of its head and condyles. In the 
general statements to be made here its action in the flexions and extensions may fairly 
be considered as though it were, in truth, straight. The small allowances which should be 
made for the effect of couples upon the action of individual muscles or groups may be 
neglected. In the movements of rotation of the limb the effect exerted by the existence 
of the neck is, however, all-important, but will be self-evident. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 317 


sacrum, and the ligaments which fill in the gaps may be consid- 
ered as the rim.t The thinner sheets of bone and the fasciae fill 
in the spaces between the spokes and bind the whole structure 
together. 

The lengths of the power arms of the levers which this arrange- 
ment gives to the muscles that govern the antero-posterior 
movements of the extended femur (Figure 3) should be especially 
noted. It should also be remembered that these advantages in 
leverage apply equally well to the similar movements of the pelvis 
upon the femur, in the management of the positions of the trunk. 

When the human pelvis is viewed from the norma verticalis 
the contrast which it offers to those of the Simiidae is again great 
(Figure 8). 

The great extent of the human anthropoidal plate and its crest, 
with the forward and even inward curvature which the crest 
shows as it nears the anterior superior spine, is particularly 
important. 

It will be seen later that these changes give to the pelvio- 
corporeal muscles greatly extended origins and constantly in- 
creased power, as well as very direct action. From a mechanical 
standpoint the crests are continued to the pubes by Poupart’s 
ligaments; and both the great lateral width and the antero- 
posterior depth, which this whole arrangement gives to the upper 
edge of the pelvis, are equally noteworthy. 

The mechanical advantages which these various changes in 
the shape, dimensions, and construction of the human pelvis 
give to both the pelvio-femoral and pelvio-corporeal muscles will 
now be discussed in detail and in order, as a necessary preliminary 
to an analysis of the human balance and gait. 

The relationship of the altered shape of the human pelvis to 
the management of the extended femur in the movements of ex- 
tension, flexion, abduction, adduction, and rotation will be taken 
first. The similar movements of the trunk will follow. 

Since, however, a discussion of the action of each muscle would 
involve a very great complexity and a great amount of space, 
they will be treated in the text merely from the aspect of 


1 As attachments for muscles, the sacro-sciatic and Poupart’s ligaments are quite as 
satisfactory as bone, more especially since Poupart’s ligament is reinforced by the inguinal 
fascia and Gimbernat’s ligament. Some initial trace of Poupart’s ligament is also present 
in the gorilla. Keith, 1923, Posture of Man. 


318 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


their resultants as groups, rather than as single muscles. 
References to individual muscles will, as a rule, be given in foot- 
notes. 

The group of muscles which extend the femur arise mainly 
from the ischiatic spokes and from the rim and surface of the 
posterior quadrant of the wheel, as seen from the norma lateralis. 
Each of them evidently gains power over the extended femur 
from the (human) dorsal situation of its origin. 

The flexor muscles differ somewhat in the situations of their 
origins, but depend for the most part upon the position of the 
pubic spoke. They gain similar advantages from the great antero- 
posterior depth of the pelvis and from the forward rotation of 
the free ilium.? 

Abduction of the thigh is chiefly performed by the glutei medius 
and minimus. From the great lateral expansion of the iliac blade 
in man their origins lie, in him, directly above their insertions into 
the great trochanter, and this gives them a very direct abductive 
action as compared with that of the apes. Their size also in- 
creases from the increased space afforded for their origins. They 
are still small muscles, but the greatest importance of the motion 
of abduction is perhaps that of placing the limb in position for 
the action of the extensors in man’s lateral spring, and for that, 
no more powerful group is needed. 

The adductors gain power from the widely lateral situation of 
the human acetabula. This is of real importance in many of our 
activities and chiefly perhaps in their contribution to the very 


1 In particular, the backward position of the sacrum and, consequently, of the sacro- 
sciatic ligaments, gives great power and a direct backward pull to the gluteus maximus, 
and the position of the origins of the hamstrings on the posterior surface of the pos- 
teriorly situated ischium gives to these muscles also an advantage towards complete 
extension of the femur, which is distinctively human. 

2 The forward position of the anterior superior spines of the ilium, which they obtain 
both from the forward extension of the crest and from the promontorial rotation of the 
pelvis as a whole, gives to the sartorius a long power arm for its flexor action upon the 
extended femur. This the much more powerful sartorius of the quadrupeds entirely lacks, 
as a result of the merely lateral position of their anterior superior spines and the conse- 
quent lack of any anteriorly directed power arm when the femur is fully extended. The 
great psoas-iliacus flexor runs, after passing in front of the pectineal eminence, strongly 
backward to its insertion in the femur. The forward position of the pubis which is de- 
rived from the great length of the external sagittal diameter gives to the adductor group 
of muscles which are attached to it a degree of flexor power which is again distinctively 
human; i.e. with the abductor muscles and those of external rotation in resistance, the 
great adductor group, and especially the adductor magnus, exerts upon the extended femur 
in man an extremely powerful flexor action which is comparatively slight in other 
animals. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 319 


important lateral flexions of the whole structure, which are essen- 
tial to balance, as will be seen. 

External rotation of the thigh is a movement of much more 
importance than is usually attributed to it, as will be seen in the 
analysis of the gait of man. All the muscles which effect it are 
inserted upon the great trochanter, or its immediate neighbor- 
hood, and consequently depend for their power upon the fact that 
the position of the trochanter is well to the outside of the line of 
rotation of the femur, the straight line between the bearing sur- 
faces of its head and condyles, but they obtain their very direct 
action upon the trochanter in man from the fact that their origins 
are carried far posterior by the backward positions of the ischium 
and sacrum.' 

It will be seen that internal rotation of the thigh is in the 
gait of man merely a movement of recovery of the position of 
the limb unapposed by any load. Its muscles require no great 
power and need not be enumerated here. 

In studying the mechanical advantages which the peculiarities 
of the human pelvis give to man in the very important matter 
of the balance of the erect trunk upon the pelvis as controlled 
by the pelvio-corporeal muscles, we must also consider the pelvic 
shape from the norma verticalis, or perhaps for the moment, from 
the plane of the superior strait. It will then be seen that the crests 
and their ligamentous extensions form a complete oval for the 
attachment of the muscles which control the trunk. Compare their 
human and anthropoid shapes (Figure 9). 

The antero-posterior extensions and flexions, the lateral ex- 
tensions and flexions, and the torsions of the trunk upon the 
pelvis will be considered in that order. 

The pelvio-corporeal extensors of the trunk obtain a great 
advantage from the formation of the promontory and the lumbar 
curve. They have, indeed, a quite different mechanical action in 
man from that which they exert in the other animals, more espe- 
cially in their effect upon the lumbar and dorsal spine. 


1 This motion is performed by a large group of powerful muscles. The lower portion 
of the gluteus maximus and the posterior fibres of the medius and even of the minimus 
play a considerable part in it, while the pyriformis, obturator internus, both gemelli, and 
the quadratus femoris have this as their main function. (Note that even in the case of 
the obturator and gemelli the direction of the strain is determined by the position of the 
ischium. ) 


320 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


In all the animals with posterior convexities of the lumbar 
spine and comparatively straight sacra, the leverage from which 
the muscles obtain their power is derived mainly from their origins 
and insertions upon the long and strong spinous processes of the 
sacral and lumbar vertebrae, which act as strong power arms in 
tilting the vertebrae. In man the lumbar concavity, increased 
as it is by the backward direction of the sacrum, gives to the 
erector spinae group somewhat the action of a bowstring. It is 
true that the erector spinae group as a whole is bound down to 
the lumbar curve by fascia, but the effect of this transverse bind- 
ing is closely comparable to that of the annular ligament in the 
wrist. It makes for compactness and does not greatly diminish 
the resultant power exerted by the whole muscle from that which 
would exist if it ran straight across the concavity upon which 
it acts.t The spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae persist 
and are still advantageous to the deeper fibres, but the great and 
strong sacral spinous processes which exist in so many of the 
other animals are no longer necessary, their function being taken 
up by the bowstring action. They are in man evidently involuting.? 

Since even in the erect position the center of gravity of the 
trunk is always anterior to the acetabula, the anterior flexions 
are usually assisted by gravity. The muscles which perform them 
are a powerful group in all the other animals, and are but little 
altered in their action in man.® 

The muscles which effect lateral flexions of the trunk origi- 
nate wholly, or in part, from the crests of the ilia and gain long 
power arms from the great lateral expansion of the crests,* but 

1 It must be remembered that the sacro-spinalis, the longissimus dorsi, and, in fact, 
all the superficial portions of the muscle run from end to end of the concavity. 

2 In many sacra those of the upper vertebrae are still present in size sufficient to sug- 
gest some functional value, but the spincus processes of the lower vertebrae are rarely 
prominent, and often vestigial; their entire disappearance and a diastemic condition of 
the arches at either end, or even throughout, is indeed not uncommon. This condition may 
probably be regarded as representing merely an excess in the variability which is so com- 
mon in all involuting organs. 

3 The recti abdominis originate from the crests of the pubes, and in so far as their 
action is concerned, the greater antero-posterior depth of the human pelvis is probably 
about compensated for by the backward rotation of the pubis, which is produced by the 
formation of the promontory and lumbar curve. They are assisted by the middle fibres of 
the external obliques, which originate from the inner lips of the crests at about the 
tuberosities, and when employed bilaterally exert together a moderate amount of flexor 
action. They undoubtedly do obtain some advantage from the forward extension of the 


crests. 
4 When one erector spinae is in relaxation and the other in contraction they are, of 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 321 


it will be seen later that in any erect bipedal position these very 
frequent and important adjustments of attitude usually involve 
coordinate and simultaneous action of the trunk and femurs. In 
the lateral flexions of the body as a whole, the motion of one femur 
is of course that of abduction; of the other, that of adduction. 

When this whole process is considered as one action it will be 
seen that a large proportion of the muscular force which pro- 
duces it + originates in the neighborhood of the acetabulo-tuberous 
line of strength, which has probably been developed partly in 
resistance to the stresses so exerted. 

All the pelvio-corporeal muscles are, of course, bilaterally 
duplicated, and the varying torsions of the trunk, which are fre- 
quent and necessary elements of balance in many of man’s erect 
bipedal activities, are effected by contraction of one muscle of 
each pair with simultaneous relaxation of the other.? 

A very little reconsideration of the preceding paragraphs will 
readily show that all the muscles which are involved in these com- 
bined movements obtain important mechanical advantages from 
their attachment to the strongly constructed, widespread, and, 
with the ligaments, completed oval of the upper rim of the human 
pelvis, as seen from the norma verticalis. It is the perfect control 
of lateral balance that is so obtained which gives man the power 
to stand, walk, and run with his knees and feet close together, and 
with, in consequence, the great advantage of a directly antero- 
posterior movement of his legs in walking and running. 

A comparative analysis of the bipedal attitude and gait of 
man and the great apes in the light of observed facts about bi- 
pedal balance is the final step in estimating the importance of 
the human pelvic specializations. 

The writer’s studies of balance have shown that there is a con- 
siderable difference in the position of the human center of gravity 
in different individuals in the standing position, but that each in- 


course, acting as muscles of lateral flexion, but their most powerful portions for this 
action are to be found in the longissimi dorsi, which, in man, arise from the posterior parts 
of the crests. The quadratus lumborum and external oblique also arise from the crests 
and exert a direct action both in the maintenance of lateral equilibrium and in the pro- 
duction of lateral flexion. 

1 That of the abdominal obliques and of the abductors of the femur. 

2 The latissimi dorsi and the obliques of the abdominal wall are probably the chief 
factors in torsion of the trunk upon the pelvis, but the action of some of the deeper 
portions of the erectores spinae must not be forgotten. 


322 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


dividual tends to maintain his individual position of the center 
of gravity with a surprising degree of exactitude, in spite of the 
assumption of many different attitudes (Figure 10).t When any 
change of attitude carries a portion of the body further to one 





FIGURE 10 


The subject stands on a machine which indi- 
cates the position of the centre of gravity, here 
indicated by the vertical line. The figure is repro- 
duced from a composite photograph in which the 
needle of the dial was at the same point, i.e., 
actually in single outline, in the two postures. 


side of the perpendicular dropped from the habitual center of 
gravity, another portion of the body is always carried to the 
opposite side to a distance just sufficient to maintain the center in 
the same position. The movement of the buttocks backward in 
compensation of the forward position of the head and shoulders 


1 Reynolds and Lovett, 1909, A Method of Determining the Position of the Centre 
of Gravity in its Relation to Certain Bony Landmarks in the Erect Position; also, 1910, 
An Experimental Study of Certain Phases of Chronic Backache, pp. 1033-1043. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 323 


is shown in the figure. Anyone can easily observe the effect of 
lateral flexion in his own person. If he will stand between a mirror 
and any vertical line, such as the edge of a door casing, and will 
then flex his body laterally, he will see that his hips are always 
thrown to the left as the head and shoulders move to the right, 
or vice versa. He will easily be able to judge that the movement 
is exactly compensatory, as it has in fact been shown to be by 
many observations upon the machine. This must be borne in mind 
throughout all comparisons of the attitudes of the apes and man. 

When any animal other than man attempts a bipedal attitude 
or gait, its feet and knees are held wide apart, its hind limbs are 
in partial flexion throughout, its buttocks are well behind, and 
its head and shoulders correspondingly in advance of the vertical 
position of the center of gravity, which in the standing position of 
any animal is undoubtedly kept at a point not far from the 
center of its base of support. There are two reasons for its re- 
striction to this imperfectly erect posture. 

In the first place, the lateral spread of the feet and knees 
widens the base of support and makes lateral balance easy. The 
animal is thus able to maintain it and even to execute lateral - 
swaying motions without overdoing them, in spite of the im- 
perfect leverages and the small size of the attachments which 
are afforded to the muscles governing these movements by its 
comparatively ill developed anthropoidal plate. 

In the second place, it is forced to adhere to a semi-erect antero- 
posterior position by the fact that this is the nearest approach 
to an erect posture in which the muscles attached to its pelvis 
have effective control of the femur under either the quadrupedal 
or semi-quadrupedal (anthropoidal) arrangements of the pelvic 
architecture.* 

The walking gait of all such animals is rendered waddling, 
awkward, and ineffective by two factors which are due to this 
attitude; first, the widely separated position of the feet compels 
it at each step to sway the body strongly towards the foot which 
is to remain on the ground before raising the other, in order to 
avoid a lateral fall; second, for the same reason, the advancing 


1 Sonntag, in The Morphology and Evolution of the Apes and Man, thinks that the 
wide fascial attachments of certain of the posterior muscles of the thigh probably also 
limit extension at the knee in the chimpanzee and gorilla. 


324 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


knee must move in the arc of a circle instead of in an antero- 
posterior line. These are the characteristics of the gait which 
belongs to the anthropoid stage of pelvic advancement. 

Man has developed a pelvis with leverages which permit him 
to manage his legs accurately in a position of full extension. His 
legs have become straight and columnar. His pelvic leverages, as 
already enumerated, are sufficiently developed to give him also a 
quick and accurate control of the fully erected trunk upon the 
pelvis. He stands, walks, and runs with his feet and knees close 
together, with his body swaying but little laterally, and with all 
the force of his muscles available for an almost directly antero- 
posterior stride. 

He is also able to change the direction of his run at any moment 
from a bipedal attitude, and he is capable of either an antero- 
posterior or lateral leap, during which both feet are clear of the 
eround. These are powers which are not possessed by any 
anthropoid. 

His ability to do all this with so high a center of gravity and 
so small a base of support is in part due to his better control of 
body balance, and in part to his improved feet, which will be re- 
ferred to later. 

In his standing attitude the center of gravity of his trunk is, 
as has been said, anterior to the acetabula, and his maintenance of 
body balance must therefore be maintained by some tension upon 
the extensors. His weight is, however, sustained by a direct thrust 
upon the bones of his columnar legs, and this with the very nearly 
erect position of his trunk reduces to a minimum the force which 
is required to maintain the attitude. Moreover, the long power 
arms which are supplied to the extensor muscles of both his 
back and thigh by his pelvic developments and patella enable 
the extensor muscles to supply this minimum of force with a 
second minimum of contractile effort in either the body or thigh; 
hence his easy endurance of this position. 

His rapid bipedal locomotion, his ability to change its direction, 
and his lateral spring are all greatly aided by the large size and 
advantageous situation of the group of muscles which govern and 
produce the motion of external rotation of the femur. The value 
and relationships of this very important motion have been much 
underestimated. They must now be considered in detail. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 325 


The chief element in bipedal progression is, of course, furnished 
by the extensors of the whole limb, but in man at full speed the 
stride finishes and obtains its final and crowning impetus of force 
by a combined movement of external rotation of the straightened 
limb and of extension of the foot. 

In change of direction of the run, and in the lateral spring, the 
center of gravity is shifted towards the new direction by lateral 
flexion of the trunk (quick and powerful pelvio-corporeal mus- 
cles), and the leg from which the lateral movement is to originate 
reaches the ground in flexion and in a position of abduction (from 
the acetabular joint). This element in the action of the limb is 
of extreme importance. The extensors of the thigh and leg are 
then, of course, the chief agents in the subsequent spring, but 
from the early moment at which the heel leaves the ground, at 
the beginning of the spring, the action of the muscles of external 
rotation become not only essential to its continuance, but an 
important element in its force and speed. 

A single experiment with the lateral spring in his own person 
will convince anyone of the importance of the combined move- 
ment of external rotation and extension of the foot in this all- 
important action. 

Conceive primeval man in the act of receiving the charge of a 
dangerous animal or pursuing agile prey, and without effective 
missile weapons. 

Two facts about this combined movement remain for 
consideration. 

It is of value to either antero-posterior or lateral progression 
only when the limb is wholly, or nearly extended, and chiefly when 
it is synchronous with extension of the ankle. 

The spring which initiates lateral movement, either in the run 
or from a standing position, is, of necessity, always executed with 
the limb in an abducted position. In this position of the limb the 
hallux and first metatarsal are the only portion of the foot which 
are in contact with the ground, and the spring is taken from 
them alone. 

It seems probable, then, that these several human character- 


1 A little thought will show that in the flexed position of the limb the rotational 
power of the muscles is at a minimum, but any attempt at a full exposition of the action 
and interaction of even a few of the muscular groups which are involved in the main- 
tenance of the erect position and gait would require a large volume for its expression. 


326 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


istics, namely, the pelvic changes which give power to the exten- 
sors and external rotators, the columnar legs, and the peculiar 
position, length, and strength of the first metatarsal, occurred con- 
temporaneously, and by synchronous stages of development. 

It seems probable, too, that they occurred at a time which was 
antecedent to the specializations for grasping which characterize + 
the feet of all the existing Simiidae.’ 

The study of the development of the human foot is not strictly 
germane to the subject of this paper, but since the pelvic develop- 
ments may have some bearing upon the vexed question of the 
relationship between man and the several genera of the anthropoid 
apes, it seems proper that the paper should not be closed without 
some reference to that subject. 

The chimpanzee-gorilla stem is generally considered to be 
nearest that of the Hominidae, but the apparently much, and 
really somewhat more perfect, erect gait of the gibbon, in com- 
bination perhaps with the characteristics of the Pithecanthropus 
femur, have led some authorities to a belief that the common 
ancestor was probably a very large gibbon, or more properly, a’ 
large gibbon-like animal. 

It is the writer’s belief that all the locomotive skeletal spe- 
cializations of the gibbon can be traced to his assumption of 
a very active arboreal life among the smaller branches, for which 
small size and light weight are absolutely essential, and to his 
acquirement of the capacity for quite complete extension of both 
the trunk and limbs which has been incidental to his brachiating 
habits. 

It seems quite unlikely, on the one hand, that complete brachia- 
tion and the development of the specializations towards exten- 
sion which are appropriate to it could have been attained by an 
animal whose greater weight limited him to the lower branches. 
On the other hand, it is at least equally improbable that an animal 
which had acquired security from enemies and success in the 
pursuit of food by the development of great brachial activity 


1 Miller, 1920, Conflicting Views on the Problem of Man’s Ancestry. 

2 With the widely separated position of the first metatarsal which exists in the gorilla, 
in the chimpanzee, and’ to a less extent in the gibbon, a lateral spring from the position 
of the foot which is incidental to the abducted position of a straight limb would be 
ineffective, if not painful, and the rotation of the femur would have little or no value, 
even if full extension of the leg had become possible. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 327 


among the upper branches would ever be led to resort habitually 
to the more dangerous terrestrial life, or to undergo a giantism 
which would shut him out from the habitat in which he is so con- 
spicuously successful. When all the other differences between the 
gibbon and man are taken into account their common ancestry 
becomes probably very remote. 

On the other hand, the existing chimpanzees and gorillas have 
obtained about the same degree of pelvic development and bipedal 
capacity as a result of their long arms and semi-quadrupedal 
terrestrial activity. An ancestor common to them and man would 
be as well equipped for the development of further bipedal ac- 
tivity as any gibbon-like animal. He would probably be already 
large enough to be restricted to the larger branches, which afford 
far less food than is accessible to the lighter arboreal animals. 
He would therefore be likely to be at least partly terrestrial in his 
habits, from his semi-quadrupedal activity would have already 
acquired about the same degree of pelvic and locomotive develop- 
ment, and would be already quite capable of taking care of 
himself upon the ground. 


CONCLUSIONS 


In conclusion the writer thinks: 

1. That a capacity for habitual erection of the trunk, even 
upon a stationary base of support, is dependent upon a lateral 
expansion of the iliac blades such as is provided by the anthro- 
poidal plate. This plate, or its equivalent, is, in fact, present in 
all animals which have such a habit. 

2. That a capacity for habitual alternate, erect, bipedal pro- 
gresssion is dependent upon the possession of a plantar tread, 
a well developed anthropoidal plate, and, in addition, a power of 
using the femur in an extended position. Further, that the exten- 
sion of the femur and its adequate control in that position is pri- 
marily dependent on the additional development of advantageous 
leverages in the ischium and pubes. 

3. That the degree of bipedal progression which is possessed 
by the Simiidae and certain Ursidae is afforded to them by their 
acquisition of a moderately well developed set of the above men- 
tioned specializations, but is limited by their retention of the 
quadrupedal, long, and nearly straight ilio-ischiatic axis and the 
quadrupedal length-breadth-depth proportions of the pelvis, 
which are necessary to their preponderantly quadrupedal habits. 

4. That man’s general bipedal activity is dependent on his well 
developed plantar feet, his excellent control of the antero- 
posterior and lateral balance of his erected trunk, and his very 
perfect control of his pelvic limbs when they are in a position of 
complete extension. Further, that these latter superiorities of 
man are due to the fact that the changes in the shape and pro- 
portions of his pelvis have resulted in placing its most advan- 
tageous leverages in resultants of position, which lie at right 
angles to the axis of his trunk and to that of his fully extended 
legs (Figure 3), in contrast to the quadrupedal arrangement, in 
which the best pelvic leverages lie very nearly in the lateral plane 
which contains the axis of the trunk. 

5. That the individual specializations of the human pelvis 
conform exceedingly well to the muscular origins and insertions 
which are necessary to the maintenance of erect balance and to 
erect bipedal activity. Further, that they are satisfactorily ex- 
plained thereby. 

328 


CONCLUSIONS 329 


6. That all of the specializations which have produced these 
results can be traced back to the primitive through intermediate 
stages, by the method of attributing all specializations to the 
development of plates and other processes from the three primi- 
tive edges. That the shape of each change has of course been 
determined in each case by strict obedience to the demands of 
mechanical law, and that their comparative perfection is an inevi- 
table and necessary consequence of this fact. 


APPENDIX 
THE PELVES OF BRADYPUS AND THE UNGULATES 


Bradypus (Figure 2), which from its peculiar habits makes 
very small demands upon its pelvis, has an ilium which, in the 
breadth of its blade and the evident method of its development, 
strongly suggests that of an animal which makes frequent use of 
the erect posture. The fact that an animal which never sustains 
its weight in an ordinary way, but passes its life suspended, should 
have such an illum would be unexplained and would throw doubt 
upon the entire hypothesis, if the answer were not supplied by 
the palaeontological evidence. 

Many of the ground sloths were enormously heavy animals 
which must have passed much of their time in a semi-erect pos- 
ture, and in reaching their food must have constantly swayed their 
enormous weight back and forth and from side to side upon the 
base formed by their hind legs and tail, with the pelvis mechani- 
cally, perhaps, the most important factor in the machinery by 
which these movements were performed. Their ischia, pubes, and 
sacrum are edentate in form and are unmodified. The femur is 
short; the caudal vertebrae are furnished with large chevron 
bones; and the tripodal base must have been formed in the usual 
tripodal manner, with the femora in the quadrupedal position, and 
the powerful tail extended backward. In exact accordance with 
what would be expected from the principles laid down in the text, 
their ilia have, however, large anthropoidal plates of great lateral 
extension, and even curve ventrally as they approach the anterior 
superior spines, in a way which strikingly suggests those of man. 

In comparing the pelvis of Bradypus with them it is evident 
that though it resembles those of its extinct relatives in every 
taxonomic character, it has, in the extreme tenuity of the bones, 
even for an animal of its weight, in the absence of the ridges and 
roughened surfaces for muscular attachments, in the flatness of 
the ilia, and the essentially total disappearance of the spinous 
processes of the sacral and lumbar vertebrae, lost practically 
every feature which would make it functional in the assumption 
of an erect posture. 

The character of this pelvis then lends support to the historical 
probability that the existing sloths are survivals from some re- 

330 


THE PELVES OF BRADYPUS AND THE UNGULATES 331 


mote ancestor which escaped extinction by small size and the 
adoption of truly arboreal habits. This pelvis may then be most 
probably explained as a rudimentary persistence of characters 
which have ceased to be of functional value. 

The Ungulata are a highly specialized order, and in the 
Ungulata vera, at all events, they are a very homogeneous order, 
both in habits and configuration. 

They are all digitigrade, quadrupedal, and terrestrial; none 
of them make use of an erect posture, and their skeletons are 
throughout highly specialized towards cursorial speed.! 

Their pelves all have the essentially straight, and usually long, 
quadrupedal, ilio-ischiatic axis.2 Their ischia, pubes, and sacra 
are strictly quadrupedal in type. 

Their iliac shanks are, as a rule, unusually long (a quadru- 
pedal character), and in the Artiodactyla, at least, have a pecu- 
liarly quadrupedal cross section. The blades have, almost without 
exception, well developed and often extensive quadrupedal plates, 
which often form a large portion of the blade, but in the Perisso- 
dactyla and Proboscidea the ventral and usually somewhat larger 
portion of the very wide blade is furnished by a true anthropoidal 
plate, while the Artiodactyla have a plate of similar shape which 
is probably developed from the fused ventral and external edges * 
(Figure 4, v1). In certain of the heavier animals the blades often 
have well developed crests. 

The appearance in these exclusively quadrupedal animals of 
wide and laterally extended blades, formed in some cases by a 
true anthropoidal plate, is a marked exception to the general rule 
that this plate is only developed by animals which use an erect 
posture. This would be a severe blow to the general argument in 
the text if there were not an adequate mechanical reason for its 
appearance here. As it is, perhaps this is a case in which the ex- 
ception proves the rule, and supports that argument. 

We have seen that one of the functions of the laterally expanded 

1 The Hyracoidea are to be noted as exceptions to several of these statements, but as 
the propriety of their inclusion in the order is doubted, and as their pelves in particular 
show quite as many rodential as ungulate characters, they are neglected here. 

2 The metischial processes, or metischial curves, which occur in some of them as extra 
specializations for leaping, have been mentioned in the text. 

3 In the absence of any really primitive ungulates this statement must be put for- 


ward a little cautiously, but certain Bovidae appear to furnish transitional stages between 
the blades of the Perissodactyla and those of the Artiodactyla. 


332 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PELVIS 


blade, and the chief function of its crest, is in furnishing direct and 
advantageous leverage to the muscles of lateral flexion of the 
trunk. 

This is, as has been seen, of great importance to the balance of 
the erected trunk, but we have here quadrupedal animals in 
whom the lateral flexions of the trunk are extremely important 
elements in the quadrupedal speed, on which their preservation 
mainly rests. 

The Ungulata as an order are preponderantly trotters or pacers, 
gaits in which the hind legs are used in strict alternation. 

In both these gaits the animals when at speed lengthen the 
stride and increase its power by strong, alternate, lateral flexions 
of the lumbar spine, and the lives of most ungulates are preserved 
from their enemies only by their speed.t 

The laterally extended iliac blades of the Ungulata then per- 
form an exactly similar function to that which they execute in 
the erect animals. They give power and direct action to the 
muscles of lateral flexion, which here again are all-important 
necessities. 

The degree of lateral expansion of the blades and crests in the 
ungulates is, moreover, proportional to the weight and speed of 
the several groups, and to the degree in which they are pre- 
ponderantly trotters or pacers. 

They reach their maximum extent and even turn ventrally and 
inwards as they approach the region of the anterior superior 
spines in the Elephantidae, which are among the heaviest of 
terrestrial animals; never use any other gait than the pace, even 
when pressed; are very fast, and can remain at speed for ex- 
ceedingly long distances. They use a considerable amount of 
lateral, lumbar flexion even when moving slowly, and this is said 
to become very great when they are at speed.? They have long 

1 It is well known, too, that even in the gallop the hind legs are not used simultaneously, 
but in an approach to alternation, and often with some lateral flexion of the trunk toward 
that limb which is in the lead at the moment. 

2 The wide lateral expansion of the human iliac blades is sometimes attributed to the 
superincumbent weight of the intestines and a necessity for their support in the erect 
posture, but this influence, if existent, seems unlikely to be more than an auxiliary. In 
point of fact the writer’s X-ray studies of the position of the pelvis in the erect posture 
of living subjects show conclusively that the blades are parts of the posterior wall of 
the abdomen and overhang, rather than support, the pelvic contents. Certainly no one 


would attribute the equally wide spread of the elephant’s ilia to the superincumbent 
weight of his intestines. 


IN ITS RELATION TO THE ERECT POSTURE 333 


legs and their very long strides are lengthened and increased in 
power when they are at speed by dorso-ventral flexions of the 
lumbar spine. The ventral prolongation of the iliac crests which is 
peculiar to them is an evident adaptation to the performance of 
this motion. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Gray, HENry. 
1883. Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical. Lewis, 20th edition. 
Philadelphia, 1883. 


Hornapay, WILLIAM T. 
1885. Two Years in the Jungle. Scribner’s, New York, 1885. 


KeitH, Sir ARTHUR. 
1923. Posture of Man. British Medical Journal, Vol. I. 


MILER, GERRIT SMITH, JR. 
1920. Conflicting Views on the Problem of Man’s Ancestry. Ameri- 
can Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 3. Washington, 
1920. 


Morton, Dupiey L. 
1922-24. Evolution of the Human Foot. American Journal of Physi- 
cal Anthropology, Vols. VI and VII. Menasha, 1922-24. 


REYNOLDS, Epwarp, and Lovett, Roperrt W. 

1909. A Method of Determining the Position of the Centre of Gravity 
in its Relation to Certain Bony Landmarks in the Erect 
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ScHuLtTz, ADOLPHE H. 
19380. The Skeleton of the Trunk and Limbs of Higher Primates. 
Human Biology, Vol. II, No. 3. 


SONNTAG, CHARLES F, 
1924. The Morphology and Evolution of the Apes and Man. Bale, 
London, 1924. 


Strauss, WILLIAM L., JR. 
1929. Studies on Primate Ilha. American Journal of Anatomy, Vol. 48, 
No. 3. 


WEIDENREICH, FRANZ. 
1913. Uber das Hiiftbein und das Becken der Primaten und 
thre Umformung durch den aufrechten Gang. Anatomicher 

Anzeiger, 1913. 


YERKES, Ropert M. and (Mrs.) Apa W. 
1929. The Great Apes. Yale University Press, New Hee 1929. 


334 


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